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A FIRST BOOK IN 
AMERICAN HISTORY 




© Brown Bros., New York. 

Independence Hall, Philadelphia 



A FIRST BOOK 



IN 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



BY 

CHARLES A/^BEARD 

AND ^^^ 

WILLIAM Cr^BAGLEY 



N£to gork 

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
1920 

A// rights reserved 






Copyright, 1920, 
Bv THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. 

Set up and electrotyped. Published October, 1920. 



iCl 2^ fc^'^ 



NorbjooD ^res8 

J. S. Gushing Vo. — Berwick & Smith Co. 

Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 



g)C!.A601281 



'Vi <z I 



TO THE TEACHER 

This First Book in American History and The History 
of the American People are companion volumes. Al- 
though this is thus the first book of a series, it is com- 
plete in itself. The History of the American People 
presupposes an elementary course. There are many 
children, however, whose study of American history 
will not continue beyond the more elementary course. 
A First Book in American History is, therefore, designed 
to include the richest possible equipment for American 
citizenship. 

This equipment, we believe, should embrace at the 
very least some knowledge of the following topics : 
(l) the growth of American nationality; (2) the con- 
stant struggle to improve the standards of American 
life; (3) the emphasis placed in America upon indi- 
vidual opportunity ; (4) the growth of humane and 
democratic ideals ; (5) the possibilities of rise from 
poverty and humble circumstances to high achieve- 
ment ; (6) the outstanding personalities and events 
that reflect the main tendencies of our national life ; 
(7) the place of America among the nations ; (8) the 
work of women ; (9) invention and industry as deter- 
mining influences in American life; (10) the spirit of 



vl TO THE TEACHER 

earnestness with which the Americans of each epoch 
have wrestled with the problems of their time. 

We have endeavored to give the elementary pupil 
some understanding of each of the above topics. 

Hitherto, writers of history for intermediate grades 
have usually followed one of two plans. They have 
either cast history in the form of a series of biographies, 
or they have condensed a more advanced book into 
shorter form, introducing the same characters and 
events, but saying less about each one. 

We have discarded both of these methods for reasons 
based upon classroom experience. No fact is more 
clearly established than that children weary of one 
biography after another — births, deeds, and deaths — 
and lose sight of American history in a maze of personal 
chronicles. Moreover, in this age of democracy, when 
stress is properly being laid upon the achievements of 
peoples — social history — we do not believe with 
Carlyle that history consists merely of the lives of 
great men. It is equally well established that, while 
history in the form of condensed narrative has an ad- 
vantage in orderliness and logical arrangement over a 
mere succession of biographies, it is nevertheless mo- 
notonous and fails to make a lasting impression upon 
young minds. 

To obviate these evils, we have adopted three de- 
vices in writing this new text. First, we have acted 
upon the assumption that only a few simple and ele- 
mentary truths can be brought home to children of the 



TO THE TEACHER vii 

fifth grade. For that reason, we have attached the 
characters and events of each chapter to a simple uni- 
fying problem or project. Collectively, these projects 
present an outline of the chief features of American 
history. ' An understanding of them implies familiarity 
with the most important subject matter of American 
history. 

In the second place, we have employed the bio- 
graphical method freely, without allowing it to restrict 
the narrative to a mere chronicle of individual lives 
or to obscure the larger movements of American his- 
tory. In the lives of the characters whom we have 
chosen to present, we have attempted to portray, not 
personal gossip but, through these individual charac- 
ters, the lives of their generations, the ideals for which 
they stood, and the place of their individual efforts and 
services in the making of the nation. 

In the third place, we have employed condensed nar- 
rative to a sufficient extent to give a connected account 
of the rise and growth of the American people. This 
narrative we have tried to weave in with the biographies 
in such a way as to give it that reality which is more 
readily associated with persons than with events. 

We believe that the keynote to success in teaching 
with this text is a careful correlation on the part of the 
teacher of problem, biography, events, and scenes. 
The following concrete suggestions toward the achieve- 
ment of this result may perhaps be helpful : 

(i) What are the great themes of American history? 



viii TO THE TEACHER 

The problems given at the beginning of each chapter 
state these clearly, and the first few days of the term 
may well be given to a comprehensive pre-view of the 
entire book. It is never too early to accustom children 
to thinking of the great sweep of history through the 
years. 

(2) A summary of these chapter-problems may 
properly be reviewed at frequent intervals throughout 
the term ; and the bearing of the current lesson upon 
the chapter-problem and, through the chapter-problem, 
upon the grand progress of American history as a whole, 
ought constantly to be emphasized. 

(3) Consideration of the application of the current 
lesson to the broader outlines of the subject ought to 
begin each daily "recitation." Suggestions for actual 
classroom procedure are. included among the questions 
at the end of each chapter. Spontaneous questions 
that occur to the pupils themselves and questions 
propounded by the teacher that serve to connect 
fact with fact and to stimulate thought are deserving 
of special emphasis and give social significance to a 
procedure which would otherwise be mere catechism. 

(4) Nothing imparts a keener reality to history than 
the study of geography. The authors have not allowed 
themselves to forget that this First Book hi American 
History will be studied at a time when the formal work 
in geography has only just begun. No geographical 
concept, therefore, Is considered too elementary for 
elucidation In the questions and maps. Simple yet 



TO THE TEACHER ix 

abundant maps are made the subject of specific drill 
in connection with each group of questions. 

The bold outline of American history to which refer- 
ence is constantly made; the comprehensive problem 
or project that serves as the center of interest in each 
chapter ; the continuity of the narrative, which makes 
the text more than a mere collection of unrelated epi- 
sodes ; and questions, maps, and illustrations that 
offer a maximum amount of concrete help : — these all 
contribute to the solution of the perplexing problems 
of the teacher of history, namely, how to develop in 
the minds of the pupils a clear conception of the main 
features of American history. This is a positive and 
orderly method of procedure. It concentrates on a 
few .things, deals with them simply and firmly, and en- 
courages systematic discussion in the classroom. 

Another feature of the text is the emphasis upon 
recent and contemporary history. Nearly one-third 
of the book is devoted to the past half century. Fortu- 
nately, it is no longer necessary to defend this procedure ; 
the desirability of such proportions is now universally 
conceded. 

C. A. B. 

W. C. B. 



CONTENTS 



I. The Age of Discovery 

II. Exploring Unknown Seas .... 

III. Breaking into the Spanish Treasure House 

IV. Westward, Ho ! 

V. . The Clash of Empires in America 

VI. The Spirit of American Independence 

VII. The American Revolution .... 

VIII. The Beginnings of a New Government . 

IX. Path Breakers to the Pacific . 

X. The New World Defies the Old 

XI. The Old East and the New West 

XII. Making an Industrial Nation 

XIII. Winning Texas and California . 

XIV. The Overland Trail — Oregon Won . 
XV. Slavery 

XVI. The Voice of the North — Lincoln . 

XVII. The South Resolute — Jefferson Davis . 

XVIII. Saving the Union 

XIX. An American Industrial Romance 

XX. The New South and Cleveland Democracy 

XXI. The United States among the World Powers 

XXII. An American Man of Letters — Mark Twain 

XXIII. Women and Human Welfare 

XXIV. President Roosevelt and Modern Questions 
XXV. President Wilson and the World War 

Pronouncing Index of Names 
xi 



COLOR MAPS 



The United States in 1920 

Growth of Continental United States 

The United States in 1861 

Europe in 1914 .... 

The Growth of Our Nation 



Front Cover 

Facing page 262 

Facing page 314 

Facing page 436 

Back Cover 



BLACK AND WHITE MAPS 



The Trade Routes to the East at the Time of Columbus 

The Countries of Western Europe at the Time When the Explorers 
Were Searching for a Water Route to the East 

Parts of the New World Discovered by Columbus and by Later 
European Explorers .... 

The Great Voyages ..... 

The New World in the Period of Exploration 

The Southern Colonies .... 

Early New England Settlements 

Early Dutch Settlements near the Mouth of the Hudson River 
"-^The Parts of America Which Were Claimed by England, France 
and Spain ........ 

Western Pennsylvania during the French and Indian War 

Northern Colonies on the Eve of the Revolution 

Southern Colonies on the Eve of the Revolution 

The Middle Colonies on the Eve of the Revolution . 

The Northwest Territory ..... 

y/Regions Explored by Lewis and Clark 

The United States in the Time of John Quincy Adams 

Texas and Mexico ....... 

Western United States in the 'Fifties 



16 

23 
25 
52 
58 
68 

84 

96 

108 

113 
114 
164 

174 
198 

243 
247 



xiv BLACK AND WHITE MAPS 



PAGE 



The Oregon Country ...,...,. 255 

The Missouri Compromise ........ 278 

The Civil War in the East ........ 323 

The Civil War in the West ........ 333 

Alaska and Hawaii .......... 363 

The West Indies in the Spanish War . . . . . . 374 

The Far East . . . . . . . . . . . 379 

The Panama Canal Zone ......... 425 

The Western Front in the World War ...... 446 



A FIRST BOOK IN 
AMERICAN HISTORY 



A FIRST BOOK IN 
AMERICAN HISTORY 

CHAPTER I 

THE AGE OF DISCOVERY 

The Problem of the Age. One day, in the summer 
of 1453, there was a strange stir in the old ItaHan 
city of Genoa. The news had come that Constanti- 
"nople had been captured by the Turks. The famous 
gateway for commerce between Europe and the Far 
East had fallen into the hands of men who were deadly 
enemies of Christian traders. 

The news alarmed the merchants of all Italy, as well 
as those of Genoa. The Italian merchants had been for 
many years the chief dealers in goods from India and 
China : cinnamon, nutmeg, pepper, pearls, almonds, 
ermine, copper, sulphur, silks, and precious stones. 
Such Eastern merchandise was brought to Italy by 
many routes. Some of the most important routes lay 
through Constantinople. 



2 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

The long journeys of the freight carriers had been 
perilous and expensive in the best of times. Now they 
were to be more dangerous than ever, for the Turks 
stood guard over every gateway to the East. 

Italian merchants had never been on good terms with 
the Turks. They were often at war with them, and 




The dark lines on this map show the trade routes to the East at the time of Columbus. All 
the countries of the world which the people of Europe knew anything about are in- 
cluded within the light line. 



they had to pay large profits on the goods they bought. 
For these reasons they had long wanted to trade 
directly with India and China. The fall of Con- 
stantinople only spurred them on to hunt for a way. 

This matter concerned all Europe, for the Italian 
traders had sold most of their merchandise in France, 
Spain, Germany, England, and Portugal. The Portu- 



THE AGE OF DISCOVERY 



3 



guese, with an outlook on the Atlantic Ocean, turned 
their thoughts even more earnestly to a water route to 
India. They had already been searching down the coast 
of Africa for a way around. Clearly, the hour had struck. 
Some one had to answer the perplexing question : "How 
can sailors find a direct route to the Far East t " 

In all parts of southern Europe men turned their 
attention to this great problem of the age. Two of 




Caravans of camels brought goods from Asia to the shores of the Red Sea, the Caspian Sea, 
and the Persian Gulf. European traders met them at these places and carried the 
goods, partly by land and partly by sea, to Europe. 

them stand out above all the others. One is Christo- 
pher Columbus, a Genoese sailor. While searching 
westward for the way to the Far East, he discovered 
a new world. The other is a Portuguese sailor, Vasco 
da Gama. While searching southward, he rounded the 
Cape of Good Hope at the southern end of Africa, and 
sailed directlv to India. 



4 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

I. The Early Life of Columbus 

Columbus, the Youth. In 1453 Columbus was 
about seven years old. Many cities claim his birth- 
place, but the honor doubtless belongs to Genoa. 

Of the boyhood of Columbus, we know little. He 
was one of several children and his parents were poor. 
No record of his school days has come down to us. 
Somewhere, sometime, he learned Latin, studied as- 
tronomy and mathematics, and gained a little knowl- 
edge of geography. He tells us in one of his letters 
that he began life as a sailor at the age of fourteen. 
According to tradition, he worked on merchant ships 
that sailed to and fro in the Mediterranean. 

Columbus in Portugal. About 1470, it is certain, 
Columbus went to Portugal. The sailors and geog- 
raphers of that country were already trying to solve 
the problem of the age. They were carrying on the 
work begun years before by a great prince called 
Henry the Navigator. They were studying maps and 
sending one fleet after another down the west coast of 
Africa in search of a water route to India. Columbus 
records that he himself made more than one voyage 
with them. 

Among the men associated with Prince Henry was 
an Italian navigator who, on his death, left a daughter 
and a great many precious maps. Columbus had the 
good fortune to win the girl's hand in marriage and 
with her the store of maps. 



THE AGE OF DISCOVERY 5 

Columbus Studies the Problem. Columbus now 
settled down to study geography. Day and night 
he pondered the question of the hour : " How can I 
find a water route to India ? " Whoever could solve 
it had fame and fortune in store. 

All over western Europe there were men busy study- 
ing the shape of the earth, the tides, and the courses 
of the stars. From their writings Columbus had much 
help. He knew he could not work the problem out 
in his own mind as he sat and watched the sea. He 
first attempted to find out what other men had thought 
about the water route to India. 

Is the World Flat? In this search he soon came 
face to face with this query : " Is the world round or 
flat ? " Common sense seemed to say that it was flat. 
Many wise men said so too. One of them had written 
in a big book : " Can any one be so foolish as to be- 
lieve that there are men whose feet are higher than their 
heads, or that there are places where things may be 
hanging downwards, trees growing backwards, or rain 
falling upwards ^ " 

Other wise men boldly said that the earth was 
round. Among the first to advance this idea was 
Aristotle, a learned Greek, who lived more than three 
hundred years before Christ. In fact, Columbus 
could not read any important book on his problem 
without finding that thoughtful geographers believed 
the world to be round. 

If the world was round, the problem of the waterway 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



to India was easily solved. India could be reached 
by sailing westward. Long before Columbus was 




The Countries of Western Europe at the Time When the Explorers 
Were Searching for a Water Route to the East 

born, keen thinkers had come to this conclusion. 
Aristotle had written that the same sea touched both 
Spain and Asia. This was a startling idea, but many 



THE AGE OF DISCOVERY 7 

writers after Aristotle agreed with him. Studious 
sailors in the day of Columbus knew about the theory. 

The Map Makers. There were at that time many 
helpful maps besides those that had been left to the 
wife of Columbus by her father. If he was a careful 
student, as we believe he was, he must have known 
about hundreds of them. 

Several years before Columbus sailed on his first 
famous voyage, he received a map and a letter from a 
geographer in Florence by the name of Toscanelli. The 
letter told him that he could reach Asia by sailing 
directly west. The map showed a route straight across 
the Atlantic to the Asiatic coast. Toscanelli, of course, 
never dreamed that a large continent lay between 
Europe and Asia. Columbus may have carried this 
map with him on his voyage. Many writers think 
he did. At all events, he had this important help in 
m^aking up his mind on the problem before him. 

Columbus Convinced That the World Is Round. 
Some time before i486, Columbus himself became con- 
vinced that the world was round. From this it followed, 
in his mind, that India could be reached by sailing west. 
Just how and when he came to this opinion we do not 
know. When the great idea seized him, however, he 
did not rest until he tested it. The trial called for 
money, ships, and men. He was poor and could not 
make the adventure alone. 

Columbus Seeks Aid. Columbus first turned to 
the King of Portugal for help, only to be denied. Then 



8 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

he pleaded his cause in Spain and, during many weary 
years, tried to get aid from the King and Queen, 
Ferdinand and Isabella. Here too his efforts appeared 
to be in vain. France seemed his last hope. 

According to tradition, he was on his way to France 
with his little boy, Diego, when he stopped for bread 
at a monastery near Palos in southern Spain. There 
a good monk, who knew Queen Isabella well, listened 
with interest as Columbus told of his great dream. 
Moved by this story, the monk wrote to the Queen 
about the marvelous ideas of the strange traveler. 
The Queen replied by summoning the monk and 
Columbus to her court. 

As soon as Columbus arrived, he laid his plans 
before the Queen and her advisers. Some thought 
him merely a madman. Others thought he wanted 
too much power and money for himself. A few were 
convinced that the plan was worth a trial. The 
disputes and delays so discouraged Columbus that 
he left the Queen and her courtiers in disgust. 

He had not gone far when the Queen decided to help 
after all. A swift courier was sent to overtake him 
with the good news. On April 17, 1492, the contract 
for the voyage was signed. Columbus was to have the 
long-sought money, ships, and men for the journey. 
He was to be ruler in all the lands he might find and 
to have the title of Admiral. Also, he was to have a 
share in the profits of trade and in the precious metals 
discovered. 



THE AGE OF DISCOVERY 




lO A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

II. First Voyage of Columbus 

Finding Sailors. All through the spring and early 
summer of 1492 the town of Palos and the country 
about the port were filled with uproar and gossip. The 
ships for the strangest voyage in all history were being 
fitted out. Sailors were hard to get. They were 
frightened at the thought of sailing far out on an 
unknown ocean called " the sea of darkness." Most 
of them refused to go and queer schemes had to be 
adopted to get crews to man the ships. Some were 
induced to go by a promise to pay their debts. 
Others were let out of prison on condition that they 
would sail with Columbus. By dint of much labor and 
worry, three small ships — the Santa Maria, the Nina, 
and the Pinta — with a combined force of about ninety 
men — were brought together. 

Off at Last. Just before sunrise, on August 3, 1492, 
they sailed out of Palos on the fateful voyage. For 
more than two long months they plowed the deep on 
their westward course. They stopped for a time at 
the Canary Islands. When they bade farewell to 
these last known lands, some of the sailors wept like 
frightened children. As the days wore on, they be- 
came more and more anxious. Columbus hid from 
them the true record of the number of miles sailed. 
If the men had known how far they had gone without 
finding land, they might have mutinied and thrown 
him overboard. 



THE AGE OF DISCOVERY 



II 



Alarming Incidents. Many things on the voyage 
added to their fright. As they sailed far westward, 
the needle of the compass no longer pointed du-e north. 




The Three Small Ships with Which Columbus Set Sail in August, 1492 

The artist painted the picture according to a description of the vessels which has come down 
from the day of Columbus. 

The sharp eyes of the pilots saw this strange move- 
ment of the needle and Columbus had difficulty in 
quieting their fears. 

Soon more trouble arose. They were alarmed by 
reaching the Sargasso Sea — a vast mass of floating 



12 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

seaweed, grass, crabs, and tunny fish. It seemed as if 
they had run into an endless prairie of green grass. 
The mariners were afraid of striking a shoal and being 
wrecked. Out went the sounding lines ; but no bot- 
tom was found. On September 22, they wrote in their 
journal, " No more grass." 

Then a third alarm startled the sailors. They 
sailed into a belt of trade winds that blew steadily 
westward. Sailing west was easy, but they began to 
wonder about winds to bring them back. They were 
very much excited over this, when suddenly the wind 
veered into the southwest. So this anxiety was laid 
to rest. 

They were now a long distance from home and were 
beginning to despair of finding an end to the ocean. 
Even their brave Admiral was himself somewhat 
disturbed. He had figured out that he should reach 
land after sailing about 2500 miles. On October 7, at 
sunrise, his records showed that he was more than 2700 
miles away from the Canary Islands. He was worried 
by his failure to see any signs of land. He feared 
that he had missed his goal. In his anxiety he shifted 
his course a bit to the southward. 

Land, Ho! Columbus was soon encouraged by see- 
ing flocks of small birds flying from the southwest. 
Land, he felt sure, must be near. On October 11, the 
crews were almost beside themselves with excitement. 
In the water they saw floating wood and land weeds. 
These were sure signs to the eye of the experienced 



THE AGE OF DISCOVERY 



13 



mariner. At ten o'clock that night, the great Admiral 
was standing on the deck of his ship and peering out 
into the darkness. All in a flash he saw a light mov- 
ing in the distance. At two o'clock in the morning of 
the next day, October 12, a sailor shouted that land 
could be seen just ahead. The joyful news was true. 




^,^.,,,i|«8Sa*SS5„ 



^"^v:^*: 



An American Artist's Idea of Columbus Landing on the STRAi\oi:. biiuKts 
Which He Discovered in October, 1492 

The sails were taken in and the ships hove to, awaiting 
the dawn. 

At daybreak Columbus and some of his men landed 
on the strange shores before them. Wild with de- 
light, the officers kissed the hand of their hero, while 
the sailors threw themselves on the ground at his feet. 
Good fortune and great riches, they hoped, were at 
hand. They named the little island which they dis- 
covered San Salvador, or Holy Saviour; but we do not 



14 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

know to this day just what island it was. Certainly 
it was one of the Bahamas. 

The adventurers had hoped to reach India with its 
cities and rich treasures. They found, however, only 
naked savages and miserable huts. The natives had 
nothing of interest to the voyagers except a few gold 
ornaments. Colunibus called these people " Indians," 
thinking that they were inhabitants of some part of 
the East Indies. 

Cruising in Strange Waters. Columbus knew that 
he must search further for China and the mainland of 
India, though he still thought they were not far away. 
He pushed on and in a few days reached the shores 
of Cuba. Still he found neither cities nor treasure. 
There were villages, to be sure. There were also fertile 
fields of Indian corn, potatoes, tobacco, and cotton. 
But there were no silks, spices, or precious stones. 

Columbus was now deserted by one of his cap- 
tains, who started back to Spain in the Pinta to 
claim for himself the glory of discovering the route to 
India. Undisturbed by this treachery, the Admiral 
kept up his search. 

In December he reached Haiti where, he said, he 
found trees " so tall that they seem to touch the skies." 
While at Haiti, a terrible accident befell the voyagers. 
The flagship, Santa Maria, ran ashore and was beaten 
to pieces by the pounding waves. 

Columbus now had but one ship, the Nina, and he 
was afraid to explore further without reinforcements. 



THE AGE OF DISCOVERY 1 5 

So he built a fort on the shore and left in it forty men 
with supplies enough to last them a year. 

The Return Home. With this one ship he turned 
homeward for more ships and men. In a short time he 
came upon the deserter, who was busy trading with 
the natives on one of the islands. The Admiral was 
in no mood to quarrel with him. He was, in fact, 
glad to have the company of the second ship on the 
perilous voyage home. About noon one day in March, 
1493, Columbus sailed into the harbor at Palos, fol- 
lowed two days later by the other ship. 

The town and all the country round the harbor were 
soon astir with excitement. Bells were rung and that 
night the streets were lighted with torches. Columbus 
was summoned to Seville and received with royal honors 
by the King and Queen. There he exhibited his par- 
rots, stuffed birds, a few pearls and golden trinkets, 
and some Indians that he had brought with him. 

All this display was very interesting, but the King 
and Queen wanted to know about trade and treasure. 
Columbus assured them that he had solved the problem 
of the age, that he had found a way to the " gorgeous 
East." Untold wealth seemed within their grasp. 
Another voyage, they thought, would unlock the 
treasure house. 

III. The Later Voyages of Columbus 

The Second Voyage. There was no difficulty in 
getting ships and men for a second expedition. They 



i6 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 




THE AGE OF DISCOVERY 17 

were soon collected. On September 25, 1493, Colum- 
bus sailed away again, with seventeen vessels and 
fifteen hundred men. Early in November they arrived 
in Caribbean waters. There they cruised for a long 
time in a vain search for the cities of the East. 

They found that the little colony of forty men left 
in Haiti had entirely disappeared. Not a man re- 
mained alive to tell the story of what had happened. 
Ruins of the fort and the bones of the dead seemed to 
point to a desperate fight with the natives. 

On this voyage, Porto Rico, Jamaica, and many 
other islands were discovered. The southern coast 
of Cuba was explored. Forts were built here and 
there. The beginnings of Spanish rule in the New 
World were made. Missionaries started their long 
and toilsome work of converting the natives to the 
Christian faith. This had been one of the motives 
of Queen Isabella in furnishing money for the voy- 
ages. 

Some gold mines were discovered in Haiti, then 
called Hispaniola, or little Spain. Natives were cap- 
tured, enslaved, and put to work in the mines. 

Cruising about in strange waters and finding strange 
lands was all very exciting, but it was not the object 
of the Admiral's expedition. His heart was bent on 
trade with the golden East, and he seemed still far from 
his goal. There were as yet no great treasures for his 
sovereigns or for himself. This was the sad news he 
had to report on his return home in 1496. 



1 8 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

The Third Voyage. Columbus, discouraged but 
not willing to give up his task, secured men and ships 
for a third voyage in 1498. This time he steered far 
to the south and touched the shoulder of a land des- 
tined to be called South America. He sailed along 
the coast for some distance between the mouths of 
the Orinoco River and the island of Trinidad. This 
shore, he was convinced, did not appear on any of the 
known maps of Asia. He therefore came to the con- 
clusion that he had discovered new territory. What 
it was and how large it was, he did not have the slight- 
est idea. 

Columbus was anxious to explore this land, but he 
was worn out by endless searching for the East. His 
eyes had grown dim with ceaseless watching of the 
tossing waves. He was sick in body, as well as mind. 
So he sailed northward to the Spanish settlements in 
Haiti. 

There he found the Spaniards quarreling among 
themselves. A Spanish commander who came upon 
the scene laid the blame for the trouble on Columbus 
and threw him into jail. Later he sent the proud 
Admiral back to Spain a prisoner. So it happened 
that the third voyage ended with Columbus march- 
ing through the streets of Cadiz in chains. 

When the good Queen heard of this wrong to the 
brave old man, she shed tears and ordered him re- 
leased. Columbus had endured taunts, insults, and 
defeat so long that he was now broken in spirit. After 



THE AGE OF DISCOVERY 19 

all, he had not found the way to India with its trade 
and treasures. When he came into the presence of 
the King and Queen he threw himself upon the ground, 
sobbing like a little child. 

The Fourth and Last Voyage. Touched by the 
sorrows of the man, the King and Queen gave him 
money for another voyage, his fourth and last. In 
1502, he sailed away from Cadiz with four small 
ships and one hundred fifty men. On this trip he 
hoped to reach the coast of China and turn southward 
to the Indies. He was again disappointed. 

For several months he coasted along Central America, 
trying to find the mouth of the Ganges River in India ! 
After months of vain searching, he decided to give 
up the quest and return to Haiti. On his way he was 
shipwrecked at Jamaica, where he spent a terrible win- 
ter of misery and starvation before relief came. In 
November, 1504, he was back again in Spain, home 
safe from his last voyage. 

A few days after his arrival his good friend and 
protector, Queen Isabella, died. There was now no 
great and powerful person to plead his cause or give 
him aid. Others were busy with their own plans for 
discovery and exploration. Worn out by his labors 
and in dire poverty, he dragged through two weary 
winters. 

At last, on May 20, 1506, he died at Valladolid, a 
small town in the interior of Spain. The news of 
his death aroused but little interest in the place where 



20 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

his troubled life came to a close. The man whose 
name had been upon every tongue and whose fame had 
spread to the far corners of Europe died in obscurity. 
He passed away without any idea of the meaning of 
his work for the world. He did not even know that 
he had discovered a new continent. He thought 
he had found a water route to the East. He believed 
that he had helped to solve the problem of the age. 

IV. The Problem Solved 

Vasco da Gama and the Route around Africa. The 

disappointment of Columbus during his last days was 
increased by the good fortune of two Portuguese 
sailors. One of them, Bartholomew Diaz, had rounded 
the Cape of Good Hope six years before Columbus 
made his first voyage. In 1497 Vasco da Gama, 
proudly flying the flag of Portugal, doubled the Cape 
and sailed on to India. In 1499 he returned in triumph. 
He brought with him spices, silks, rubies, emeralds, 
carved ivory, crimson satins, and no end of precious 
stuflFs, 

There was no doubt about his success. There was 
also no doubt that the Portuguese would get rich 
from the Eastern trade thus opened. Filled with 
pride, the King of Portugal wrote a long and boastful 
letter to the King of Spain. He told of the great 
wealth he expected to win. Compared with this 
trade, the work of Columbus seemed for a time poor 
and trivial. 



THE AGE OF DISCOVERY 21 

The Name " America." As if to make ill luck worse, 
Columbus was not even honored in the naming of the 
New World. By a strange freak of fortune it was named 
after another Italian, a man of much less importance, 
Amerigo Vespucci. This sailor was for a time engaged 
in trade in Spain and Portugal. He records that he 
made several voyages to the New World and he wrote 
letters about his adventures. 

One of his letters fell into the hands of a map maker 
in France. In a book published in 1507, this geog- 
rapher suggested that the New World be called America 
in honor of its supposed discoverer, Amerigo. For 
no very good reason, the name was adopted. So the 
vast continents that barred the way to the Far East 
were named, not the Columbias, but the Americas. 
Columbus had gone to his long home, and it mattered 
not. In the fullness of time he was to have honor 
enough. 

Questions and Exercises 

What part of the world is called the "Far East"? Why did 
the people of Europe wish to find a way by which ships could sail 
directly to the Far East ? Why was it easier and quicker in those 
days to travel by water than by land ? In what ways can we travel 
most quickly to-day ? Can goods be carried to-day more cheaply 
by land or by water ? Find on the maps Constantinople, Venice, 
Genoa, India, China, Portugal, Spain, France, and England. 

I. How did it happen that many people in the old times be- 
lieved that the world was flat ? What made it hard for them to 
think that the earth was round like a ball ? Many people, even 



22 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

before the time of Columbus, were certain that the world was 
round; why did not. some of them try to reach the Far East by 
sailing west from Europe ? 

II. Why was it hard for Columbus to get sailors for his first 
voyage ? Remembering what he had to do to get his sailors, 
what kind of men do you think they were ? What is meant by 
a "mutiny" on shipboard ? Mutiny on a ship is held to be a very 
serious crime ; why is it more serious than similar action would 
be on land ? What is a compass, and why is it useful to sailors I 
Find the meaning of the following words : pilot, mariner, shoal, 
sounding line. Name as many ways as you can think of In which 
the first voyage of Columbus differed from a voyage that one might 
take to-day across the Atlantic ocean. Find on the map Palos, 
the Bahama Islands, San Salvador, Cuba, Haiti. 

III. Give as many reasons as you can showing why Columbus 
found less difficulty in getting men and money for his second 
voyage. Find on the map Porto Rico, Jamaica, the Caribbean 
Sea. Why was the second voyage a disappointment to Columbus 
and to the King and Queen of Spain .'' The text states that the 
natives of Haiti were "enslaved" ; what Is a slave, and how does 
he differ from a free man ^ What is a missionary, and why did 
the Queen of Spain send missionaries to the new lands ? Why was 
Columbus so discouraged after his third voyage ? Find on the 
map the "shoulder" of South America. Find the Orinoco River, 
the Island of Trinidad. What did Columbus hope to discover on 
his fourth voyage ^ Locate Cadiz, Central America, Valladolid. 
Make a list of words that describe Columbus ; for example, 

"Columbus was patient, , ," and as many more words 

as you can think of telling something Important about him. 

IV. Why Is the name of Bartholomew Diaz remembered ? 
Why did the voyage of Vasco da Gama seem at the time to be 
more important than the discoveries of Columbus .'' Locate 
the Cape of Good Hope. How did it happen that the name 
"America" was given to the New World ? 



THE AGE OF DISCOVERY 



23 



Suggestions for Reading 

Albert Bushnell Hart's Source Readers in American History, 
No. I, Colonial Children, pp. 4-6; Eva March Tappan's American 
Hero Stories, pp. 1-13 ; Gertrude V. Southworth's Builders of Our 
Country, pp. 24-36 ; H. A. Guerber's Story of the Thirteen Colonies,' 
pp. 31-62 ; Charles A. McMurry's Pioneers on Land and Sea, pp. 
122-160 ; Mildred Stapley's Christopher Columbus in True Stories 
of Great Americans. 

Problems for Further Study 

I. How much longer did it take Columbus to cross the Atlantic 
than it takes the fastest passenger vessels to-day .'' 2. To what 
country does Porto Rico now belong? 3. When did Spain lose 
this island ? 



180° 160° 140° 120° 100 

ARCTIC 
OCEAN 



20V 40° 60° 80° 100° 120° 140° 160° 180" 

a A R C T I J7 OCEAN 




A N T A R C T 

160° ly)" iao» iy)° y 60" 



O C E A It 

1000 3000 JUuO iUOO 

y y y y» iy» igp- 140- ly)- 



Wau. £ia«. Co., N.T. 



The Great Voyages 



CHAPTER II 

EXPLORING UNKNOWN SEAS 

The Problem : How to Reach Asia by Way of the New 
Lands. Columbus, at his death in 1506, left to later ex- 
plorers a great problem. That was to find out the 
relation of the new lands he had discovered to the 
continent of Asia for which adventurers were search- 
ing. For many years they thought, as he did, that 
those lands were outlying parts of the distant Indies or 
China. They had no idea that a vast stretch of two 
unknown continents extended all the way from the 
Arctic Ocean to the Antarctic Ocean, They had no 
idea that the Pacific Ocean, far wider than the Atlantic, 
lay between the new lands and Asia. 

Explorers wondered how they could reach China 
or India by overland journeys. Navigators naturally 
thought of some waterway through or around the 
newly discovered lands to the rich countries of the 
Far East. When warriors heard rumors of cities and 
gold not far away, they dreamed of conquest. 

The Men Who Were to Solve the Problem. After 
Columbus had broken the path, others found it easy 
to follow. Men of nearly every nation joined in the 
work. They were so numerous that it is impossible to 

24 



EXPLORING UNKNOWN SEAS 



25 




;j2\Turia del Fuego 
ijapc Horn 



tt'iu,. E„g. Co., N. Y. 

The New World in the Period of Exploration 



26 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

mention a few without doing injustice to those left 
unnamed. 

Four, however, are of special interest to students 
of American history — John Cabot, whose explora- 
tions gave England her claims in North America ; 
Magellan, who first sailed around the world and thus 
showed that America was far from Asia ; Verrazano, 
who made western voyages for the King of France ; 
and Cartier, who opened the St. Lawrence Valley to the 
French. 

I. The English King Takes Part in Exploration 

John Cabot. About the time that Columbus left 
Italy there lived in Venice an Italian merchant and 
mariner by the name of John Cabot. He too was 
probably born in Genoa, the home of Columbus. Like 
Columbus, also, he knew about the trade with India and 
China. Once upon a time he had visited Arabia and he 
had made inquiries there about the far Eastern lands. 

For some unknown reason John Cabot went to 
England to seek his fortune. He took with him his 
son, Sebastian, then about sixteen years old, and 
settled in Bristol on the west coast. Bristol was then 
the chief seaport of England, the home of fishermen 
and sailors. Naturally the people of that town, 
Cabot among them, early heard of the voyages made 
by Columbus. 

Henry VII Helps Cabot. Cabot, a man of action, 
visited King Henry VII and got from him permission 



EXPLORING UNKNOWN SEAS 



27 



to sail " east, west or north, with five ships carr^dng 
the EngHsh flag." He was told to " seek and discover 
all the islands, countries, regions, or provinces of pagans 
in whatever part of the world." 

Instead of the five ships, however, Cabot got only 
one, and a crew of but eighteen 
men. Taking his son with him, 
he sailed west from Bristol in 
May, 1497, and discovered 
what he believed to be the 
coast of China. 

When Cabot returned to 
England, he was received with 
great honor. We are told that 
he dressed in silk and that 
Englishmen ran after him like 
madmen. King Henry was 
pleased and gave him a purse 
worth about ^500 in our money. 
Once more Cabot sailed to 
North America. What became 

of him no one knows to this day. Tower Erected at Bristol, 
Nor is it known just what England, in Memory of John 
r -\T 1 \ • /^ 1 AND Sebastian Cabot 

part 01 North America Cabot 

discovered. It seems certain that he touched the 
coast of Labrador and sailed southward as far as 
Cape Cod. At all events the voyages of Cabot gave 
England a claim to a large part of the New World, 
for it is agreed among the nations that a country that 




♦i%« , ' //A-itt" fj. 




The Ship in Which John and Sebastian Cabot Sailed along Part of the 
Coast of North America 

The picture is taken from a modem engraving. 

28 



EXPLORING UNKNOWN SEAS 29 

first discovers a new land has a right to own it. Later 
this claim became important ; but it brought neither 
gold nor trade to satisfy the King, who was in no mood 
to waste money on mere sea voyages. Almost a 
hundred years were to pass before the English followed 
up the work of John Cabot. 

II. "Around the World." — A Great Exploit 

The Early Days of Magellan. While all Europe 
was aroused over the search for the way to India, there 
was born in a wild and gloomy nook of Portugal a 
little boy who was to help solve the problem which 
Columbus left. That little boy was Ferdinand 
Magellan. His parents were of noble birth and they 
sent their son to Lisbon, where he was brought up 
in the royal court. Life was too dull for him there. 
At the age of about twenty-five he went to sea. He 
rounded the Cape of Good Hope several times, and 
for many long years he sailed the strange waters 
about India. Thus he became deeply interested in 
the Indian trade. The " fabled lands " were real to 
him because he had seen them with his own eyes. 

Sometime after 1 5 12 he adopted Columbus' idea 
of reaching the East by sailing west. The chief problem 
in his mind was to find a waterway through the strange 
lands just discovered. He got help from the geogra- 
phers. 

After he had made up his mind to search for a route 
in the southwest, Magellan turned to the King of 



30 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

Portugal for aid. The King paid no attention to him. 
Then Magellan asked if he might offer his services to 
some other master. The King said he might do as he 
pleased. 

On the Way around the World. Magellan left his 
own country and got help from the King of Spain. 
In August, 1 5 19, he sailed out from the mouth of the 
Guadalquivir River with five small ships, all old and 
battered. Among his crew he had men of several 
nations : Portuguese, Spaniards, French, Germans. 
Greeks, one Englishman, and several Malays. 

This motley crowd made trouble for the captain. 
After a two months' voyage Magellan reached the 
coast of Brazil. There the men began to grumble. 
The wine was bad, they said ; the supply of bread was 
short ; the ships were worn out ; and they must go 
home. The captain looked at them with fiery eyes 
and told them that he would not turn back. They saw 
his firm lips and stern look and knew that he meant 
what he said. Some mutinied. He promptly put 
them in irons. The rest he soothed by promises of 
great riches in the East. 

Through the Straits. So oif they sailed down the 
coast of South America. In October, 1520, they found 
the straits that now bear Magellan's name. One of 
the ships slipped away and sailed back to Spain. Once 
more the men began to quarrel. There was left very 
little food of any kind, but Magellan declared he would 
go on " if he had to eat the leather off the ship's yards." 



EXPLORING UNKNOWN SEAS 31 

Once through the storm-swept straits, they sailed up the 
west coast of South America, perhaps a third of the way. 

Across the Pacific. Then they turned west for the 
long voyage across the Pacific. For nearly four months 
they sailed on, taking twice the time and covering 
almost twice the distance of the first voyage of Colum- 
bus. Their hardships were terrible. Some died of 
hunger. Some lost their teeth from disease. Magellan's 
vow was fulfilled. He did chew the leather from the 
ship's yards. Thoroughly discouraged, the men de- 
clared that the world was not round after all. Their 
captain was mad, said even the bravest. To go back, 
however, was clearly impossible. There was, nothing 
to do but to go forward. 

In the Philippines. At last on March 6, 1521, their 
hungry eyes beheld land once more : the Ladrone 
Islands. There they found fruits, vegetables, and 
supplies. A few days later they came upon the islands 
afterward named the Philippines in honor of King 
Philip of Spain. There Magellan was killed in a fight 
with the natives. 

His followers, now only half the number that had 
sailed away from Spain, decided to get home as soon 
as they could. In one of the little ships, the Victoria, 
they made straight for the Cape of Good Hope. On 
the 6th of September, 1522, this weather-beaten boat 
with eighteen gaunt and hungry survivors rode into the 
river from which they had sailed. The most wonder- 
ful journey in all histor>^ was over. There was no 



32 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

longer doubt that the world was round. Eighteen 
men had been around it. There was also no doubt 
that a great ocean lay between the lands Columbus 
had discovered and the Asia which he had sought. 

III. The King of France Sends Out Explorers 

The Voyage of Verrazano. The King of France 
looked with wonder and envy on the deeds of the 
Spanish and the Portuguese explorers. According to 
a story that has come down to us, he wrote to the King 
of Spain a saucy letter. He asked him by what right 
he and the King of Portugal were trying to get and hold 
the earth- He asked him whether Adam, the first 
man, had given them this right. If Adam had done 
this, said the French King, then the will left by Adam 
should be somewhere and ought to be shown to the 
world. Until it was shown, he went on, he would 
pay no attention to their claims. Even if he did not 
write this letter, he at least carried out the threat 
in it. 

He challenged them, .first on the sea. He had in his 
employ an Italian by the name of John Verrazano, who 
had come from Florence. In 1524 this sailor, in a 
ship flying the French flag, seized a Spanish ship on 
its way home from America. This bold deed pleased 
the French, for the ship carried a rich cargo, including 
gold and silver from the mines that the Spaniards 
had found in the New World. The next year Verra- 
zano crossed the Atlantic and reached the coast some- 



EXPLORING UNKNOWN SEAS 33 

where near the CaroHnas, it appears. From there 
he sailed northward as far as Cape Cod. 

Cartier and the St. Lawrence. In 1494 there was 
born in the French seaport of St. Malo a boy, Jacques 
Cartier, who was, in after years, to open the way for 
French pioneers in the St. Lawrence Valley. St. Malo 
was a busy place when Jacques was a youth. Out of 
the harbor, hardy mariners sailed to the coast of 
Newfoundland to catch fish. Back home they came 
with their ships loaded. Through the town there flew 
all sorts of stories about the New World. Jacques 
must have heard hundreds of them as he played along 
the wharves or watched the sailors unload their ships. 

Young Cartier early took to the sea himself, and 
when he was grown he planned voyages across the 
Atlantic. In 1534 he sailed for the coast of North 
Ameriqa and explored the Gulf at the mouth of the 
St. Lawrence River, hunting for a water route to 
China.' The next year he was at the Gulf again. This 
time he pushed his way far up the river. There he 
found Indian villages, but no rich cities. One of these 
villages, which stood on a hillside, he named Montreal, 
or Mount Royal, in honor of the King. Cartier was 
not discouraged by the outcome, but went back a 
third time and planted a colony. Though this colony 
failed, Cartier had revealed to the French a fertile 
land and had given to the King a sure claim to a wonder- 
ful valley. 



34 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 




EXPLORING UNKNOWN SEAS 35 

Questions and Exercises 

Of what continent did Columbus believe the new lands that he 
had discovered to be a part ? What reasons can you give ex- 
plaining why he made this mistake ? 

I. Why was the voyage of John Cabot important for England ? 
Why did not England make use of Cabot's discoveries as soon 
as they had been made ? Locate Bristol in England, Labrador, 
Cape Cod. 

IL What plan did Magellan make for solving the problem 
that ColumSus had left unsolved ? Trace on a large map or on 
a globe the route that Magellan followed. Think of the difficulties 
Magellan had to meet in addition to those that beset Columbus; 
how much longer did it take to make the voyage .'* How much 
farther did the men who lived to reach home travel ? Locate 
the Guadalquiver River, Brazil, the Straits of Magellan, the 
Ladrone Islands, the Philippines. What did the voyage prove ? 
Give as many reasons as you can for calling this the "greatest 
voyage in all history." 

III. Why did the King of France send Verrazano on a voyage 
of discovery .'* Trace his route. What did Cartier do that makes 
him better remembered than Verrazano ^ What was his object 
in making his voyage ? What did he accomplish ? Locate St. 
Malo in France, the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the St. Lawrence 
River, and Montreal. 

Suggestions for Reading 

Hart's Source Readers in American History, No. I, Colonial 
Children, pp. 7-8 (Cabot) ; Tappan's American Hero Stories, pp. 
14-24 (Magellan) ; McMurry's Pioneers on Land and Sea, pp. 161- 
185 (Magellan) ; Guerber's Story of the Thirteen Colonies, pp. 70-73 
(Verrazano and Cartier) ; Southworth's Builders of Our Country, 
pp. 37-40 (Cabot), pp. 142-148 (Verrazano and Cartier). 



36 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

Problems for Further Study 

To what country do the Philippine Islands now belong ? Could 
Magellan have sailed from the Atlantic to the Pacific in any other 
way except through the Straits of Magellan ? How do most 
vessels now pass from the Atlantic to the Pacific ? 



CHAPTER III 
BREAKING INTO THE SPANISH TREASURE HOUSE 

Spain's Problem : How to Hold the Fruits of Con- 
quest. In 1556 King Philip II came to the throne of 
Spain. His empire stretched around the world. Thirty 
years after Columbus' first voyage, Mexico had been 
conquered by the Spaniard, Cortes. About ten years 
later Pizarro, also a Spanish soldier, had won Peru. In 
both these countries there were many gold and silver 
mines which had been opened by the natives long be- 
fore, so the Spanish dream of treasure in the New 
World had at last come true. In addition to these rich 
countries, the King of Spain and the King of Portugal 
claimed the New World, the Far East, and the oceans. 
In 1580 even Portugal came under Spanish rule, thus 
apparently completing the triumph of Spain. 

King Philip claimed the sole right to trade with all 
his possessions. Gold and silver from Mexico and 
Peru filled his treasury to bursting. To all outward 
appearances, Spain was the richest and most powerful 
nation on the globe. 

There was, however, a serious problem before the 
Spanish King. Like a tiny cloud, a danger had appeared 
on the horizon. It grew bigger year by year. A 

37 



38 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

mighty rival, England, was coming on the scene. King 
Philip watched the rising power of that country with 
growing anxiety. Two questions troubled him : 
" Would England ever become strong enough to 
challenge his empire and seize his trade ? What was 
to be the outcome of the desperate rivalry of nations 
over the New World ? " 

British Rivals of Spain. The answer to these ques- 
tions was soon to come. Two years after Philip 
ascended the Spanish throne, Elizabeth was crowned 
Queen of England in London. England was a Protest- 
ant country and a deadly foe of Catholic Spain. She 
was already developing seamen prepared to challenge 
the Spanish navy. 

One of these sailors, Sir Martin Frobisher, beginning 
in 1576 made three voyages to the New World in search 
of a way to China. Another navigator, Sir John 
Hawkins, openly defied the Spanish King's decree 
excluding foreign sailors from Spanish colonies, and, 
in spite of it, traded with the West Indies. A third 
captain. Sir Walter Raleigh, was venturesome enough 
to send colonists in 1587 to settle on the shores of North 
America. The effort came to nothing, but it was a 
sharp warning to the King of Spain. 

I. The Deeds of Sir Francis Drake 

The Youth of Drake. Among the sea captains of 
the time of Elizabeth none was more daring than Sir 
Francis Drake. His whole life was a storv of the 



BREAKING INTO THE SPANISH TREASURE HOUSE 39 

ocean. His early boyhood was spent at seaports. 
According to history, the first sounds that he heard 
were the clatter of shipwrights' hammers and the songs 
of sailors as they polished their guns. The wind 
whistling in the rigging was his first lullaby. 

Having to earn his own living, Drake got a post as 
cabin boy on a trading vessel plying between England, 




The Spaniards used huge ships with three or four decks to bring their treasure from America. 
These ships are often called galleons. 

Holland, and France. His captain grew fond of the 
boy, and when he died left him the ship on which they 
had sailed together. 

While just a youth, Drake thus became a ship owner 
and trader. He was engaged in shipping when, in 
1564, King Philip, angry at English seamen for seizing 



40 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

his treasure vessels on their way home from Mexico and 
Peru, closed the Spanish ports to Englishmen. This 
ruined Drake's business and gave him a lasting grudge 
against Spain. 

Drake Learns about Spanish America. At the first 
opportunity Drake joined the English captains who 
defied Spain's order and sailed to the West Indies. 
In 1567 he was a pilot for John Hawkins, on one of his 
slave-trading voyages. In 1570 he was back in the 
West Indies on a scouting expedition. He became 
convinced that a fearless and dashing raider could rob 
Spanish towns in America at will. 

The Famous Raid on Nombre de Dios. In 1572, 
with two small but swift ships, Drake sailed out of 
Plymouth for the Caribbean Sea, the southern part of 
which was then called the Spanish Main. His crew 
of seventy-three men were all, save one, under thirty 
years of age. They were bound for the Spanish town 
of Nombre de Dios on the Isthmus of Panama. That 
post was the center through which flowed the rich 
booty from Peru and the Pacific coast towns on its 
way to Spain. 

For many weeks Drake and his men scoured land 
and sea in the neighborhood of this settlement. They 
lay in wait for Spanish mule trains bringing in gold and 
silver and rushed upon them from the bushes. They 
robbed vessels bound to and from the Spanish shores 
laden with supplies and precious metals. 

With their ships filled to bursting, Drake and his 



BREAKING INTO THE SPANISH TREASURE HOUSE 41 

men sailed home. On a Sunday in August, 1573, when 
the good people of Plymouth were at church, they 
heard in the harbor the thunder of Drake's guns. To 
the dismay of the preachers the congregations rushed 
out to learn what had happened. Drake was back 
with such spoils as Englishmen had never seen before. 
All the while England was, in theory at least, at peace 
with Spain. No wonder that Drake was called the 
Queen's " little pirate." 

Drake Sails around the World. Not long after- 
ward, Drake was summoned before Elizabeth. To her 
he unfolded an astounding plan. He wanted to sail 
into the Pacific, " the Golden Sea," and seize more 
Spanish gold and silver. The Queen was pleased, 
and gave him money for the venture. However, she 
told him to keep it a secret. 

Overjoyed, Drake went to work to collect his ships. 
When people asked him where he was going, he re- 
plied : "To Egypt." In November, 1577, all was 
ready, and at the head of a fleet he rode out of the 
harbor of Plymouth. Down the coast of Africa he 
sailed, capturing half a dozen Spanish and Portu- 
guese merchant ships on the way, stripping them of 
silks, spices, and stores. Well stocked, Drake then 
sailed westward. On April 5, 1578, he was off the 
coast of Brazil struggling southward toward the Straits 
of Magellan. 

A terrible voyage it was, according to a journal kept 
by one of Drake's men. First one storm and then 



42 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

another burst upon them. It was August before they 
came to the Straits. 

In a fortnight Drake and his men were in the waters 
of the Pacific. A dreadful gale struck them, and 
in an uncharted sea they were driven to and fro day 
and night, with no rest. The winds blew such a blast 
that they had to keep their sails furled. The towering 
waves broke over their decks in endless streams. 

After three weeks of this, one of the ships foundered, 
carrying to the bottom of the sea every soul on board. 
In another week, the captain of the second ship gave 
up the struggle and turned back to England. 

Drake was left with one ship, the Golden Hind. 
On the fifty-third day of the storm, he found himself 
driven far south among the islands at the very end of 
South America. He landed on the last island and saw 
before him the Atlantic and the Pacific rolling together 
as one flood. He walked alone to the southern tip of 
the continent and lay down upon the ground to em- 
brace with his own arms the southernmost point of the 
known world. After this ceremony, Drake turned 
northward to raid the Pacific shores of South America. 

Up the Spanish Coast. With only one ship, but 
triumphant, the captain of the Golden Hind sailed up 
the coast of Chile, plundering as he went. Day after 
day, Drake kept on up the coast, overhauling ships 
and taking off their treasure. When he reached the 
Isthmus of Panama, the Golden Hind was ballasted 
with silver instead of the heavy stones with which he 



BREAKING INTO THE, SPANISH TREASURE HOUSE 43 

had started out, and her cabin was full of gold and 
jewels. By this time the Spanish settlements had 
all heard of the dreadful raider. Church bells were 





m 


hR» ""^ ^' 


'^S 




i^^^^^^" 


" "■~^- 


^H^ 


\.j -'" 



Drake's Ship, the Golden Hind, in Which He Sailed around the World 
The picture is taken from an old book published in 1588. 

melted down to make guns and ships were fitted out 
to catch him. 

Drake knew well that he would soon be attacked 
by a large force. So he began to search for another 
way into the Atlantic. Higher and higher up the 
coast he went. Colder and colder became the weather. 
Instead of the torrid heat of the equator he had the 



44 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

chilly winds of the North Pacific. When he reached the 
latitude of the island now called Vancouver, he gave 
up the search for a northern passage to the Atlantic 
and turned back upon his path, having resolved to 
return to England by the long westward route by the 
Cape of Good Hope. 

The Pacific Voyage. Somewhere near the site of 
San Francisco, Drake put in to shore to fit his ship for 
the desperate work of sailing home. On July 25, 1579, 
he started westward across the Pacific. For sixty- 
eight days he plowed the deep until he came to the 
Caroline Islands. Thence he turned to the Philippines 
and finally to the Moluccas. 

Home with the Plunder. Drake had had enough. 
He made for a southern port on the island of Java, 
where he refitted and collected stores for the last lap in 
the world voyage. Around the Cape of Good Hope he 
went and, in the autumn of 1580, slipped quietly into 
the harbor of Plymouth. 

With " the cream of his plunder," Drake went to 
London. Lavishly he gave gold and silver to the 
Queen's ministers. The Queen herself he surprised 
with gifts of such jewels as she had never before seen. 
He told her of still greater riches to be gathered in 
" the garden of the King of Spain." The Spanish 
ambassador fumed and raged because Drake was 
not jailed as a pirate. The Queen smiled and, after 
a grand banquet on board his ship, she knighted Drake 
— " the master thief of the unknown world." 



BREAKING INTO THE SPANISH TREASURE HOUSE 45 



II. The Battle with the Grand Armada 

England was in fact, without declaring it, waging 
war on Spain. Drake continued his plundering. Once 
he ran right into the harbor of Cadiz, robbed and 
sank ships to his heart's content, and sailed out 




Queen Elizabeth Knighting Drake on the Golden Hind at Deptford, 

April 4, 1581 

again. This time, it was said, he " singed the Span- 
iard's beard." 

Spain Prepares to Fight. The King of Spain was 
filled with rage. He prepared to put down the English 
pirates by force of arms. He collected the mightiest 



46 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

fleet yet brought together on European waters. There 
were in all more than one hundred twenty vessels, 
commanded by his greatest captains. Nearly thirty 
thousand men and many heavy guns were put on 
board. In August, 1588, the Armada, as this fleet 
was called, swept up to the English Channel. 

The English knew that it was coming. Drake had 
wanted to strike at the Spaniards while they were getting 
ready, but in this he was overruled. So the English 
prepared to meet the Armada in their own waters. 
Eighty ships were brought together under Admiral 
Howard, with Drake, Hawkins, and the best English 
captains to aid him. 

The Battle. It is said that Drake and the English 
officers were playing a game of bowls when the news 
came that the Spanish fleet was riding up in battle 
array in the form of a crescent. Drake and Howard 
at once leaped into the fray. For more than a week 
there was scattered fighting without important results. 

Then came a general action which lasted for six 
terrible hours. The Spaniards fought bravely, but 
the English guns were well aimed and smashed the 
wooden hulks of their ships as sails are riddled in a 
gale. Ship after ship, the flower of the Spanish navy, 
careened and went down, carrying captains and crews 
to a watery grave. 

As things turned out, ill luck pursued the Spanish to 
the end. A storm came up and drove the ships that 
escaped northward through the Straits of Dover along 



BREAKING INTO THE SPANISH TREASURE HOUSE 47 

the coast of the Netherlands. They ran far north 
around Scotland and then southward down the coast of 
Ireland, leaving wrecked hulks along the way. It was 
a sad and battered remnant that returned at last to 
Spain to confess a dreadful defeat at the hands of the 
English. The King of Spain now knew how grave 
his problem was. 
>^ 

III. The Way Prepared for English Settlements 

Drake Finishes His Work. Drake was soon back 
at his old tricks, raiding Spanish trading posts in the 
New World. In January, 1596, while he was riding 
the waves of the Caribbean off the coast of Panama, 
a terrible fever seized him and he died in his cabin. 
His men sorrowfully wrapped his body in a leaden 
shroud. Amid the thunders of cannon Sir Francis 
Drake found his last home in the sea. As seemed 
fitting, his men sank as monuments by his watery 
grave two Spanish galleons that had just been captured. 
The bold sea captain had done his work. England was 
mistress of the seas. English settlers could sail safely 
to North America and count on the protection of the 
British navy. 

Sir Walter Raleigh. Among Drake's friends was 
one of the cleverest men in England, Sir Walter Raleigh. 
Unlike Drake, he was born in a well-to-do family, and 
was sent to college at Oxford. While he was still 
young he came to see more in the New World than 
mere plunder. His mind turned to planting colonies 



48 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



of English citizens there. He saw, as in a vision, a 
new England beyond the sea. In 1584, when he was 
only thirty-two years old, he secured permission from 
Queen Elizabeth to explore in the New World. That 

year and the next he 
dispatched fleets to 
America, 

The Colony at Roa- 
noke. In 1587 he sent 
over a colony of emi- 
grants, who settled 
on Roanoke Island. 
This was an unhappy 
venture. Every soul 
was lost. No one 
knows to this day 
what actually befell 
the colony. 

Though defeated in 
his plans, Sir Walter 
Raleigh never gave up 
his idea. To the end 
of his life he dreamed 
of the new England that was to be established across 
the sea. As so often happens. Sir Walter's work was 
done by other hands. To this day, however, he is 
counted among the far-sighted men of the age of 
Elizabeth who prepared the way for English triumph 
in North America. 




Sir Walter Raleigh, One of the Pioneers 
IN Founding English Settlements in 
America 



BREAKING INTO THE SPANISH TREASURE HOUSE 49 

Questions and Exercises 

What rich countries in the New World had Spain conquered ? 
Locate them on the map. What effect did Spain's good fortune 
have upon other countries in Europe ? Why did Spain forbid 
■ships of other nations to trade with her American colonies and 
to make settlements in the New World ? Why are the names 
of Frobisher, Hawkins, and Sir Walter Raleigh remembered ? 

I. Why did Drake dislike the Spaniards ? What did he do 
to injure the Spanish trade with America ? Locate the Isthmus 
of Panama. Why was this isthmus important to Spain ? Trace 
the course along which the treasure from the mines of Peru would 
be carried in those days to Spain. Find on the map Nombre de 
Dios. Near what modern town is it located ? What is a pirate 
and why was Drake called a pirate for taking the Spanish treasure ? 
Why did Queen Elizabeth tell Drake to keep as a secret the fact 
that she helped him fit out his ships .? How did Drake get his 
ships to the Pacific ? How long was this after Magellan's voyage ? 
How did Drake happen to make the voyage around the world ? 
Trace his route, locating Chile, San Francisco, Vancouver Island, 
the Caroline Islands, the Molucca Islands. 

II. What was the "Spanish Armada".'' The defeat of the 
Spanish Armada by the English ships is looked upon as one of the 
most important battles ever fowght; why do you think it was 
important .'' Locate the English Channel and the Straits of Dover. 

III. How did Raleigh's work for England differ from that of 
Drake ? Locate Roanoke Island. 



Suggestions for Reading 

Hart's Source Readers in American History, No. i. Colonial 
Children, pp. 12-16 (Pizarro) ; Southworth's Builders of Our 
Country, Book I, pp. 43-50 (Cortes and Pizarro), pp. 54-72 (Haw- 
kins, Drake, and Raleigh) ; Marguerite Stockman Dickson's Camp 

£ 



50 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

and Trail in Early American History, pp. 19-35 (Cortes) ; pp. 50-68 
(Drake) ; pp. 69-85 (Raleigh) ; Tappan's American Hero Stories, 
pp. 24-37 (Drake) ; McMurry's Pioneers on Land and Sea, pp. 186- 
221 (Cortes), pp. 47-67 (Raleigh); Guerber's Story of the Thirteen 
Colonies, pp. 83-86 (Raleigh) ; George Cary Eggleston's Our First 
Century, pp. 1-20 (Columbus, Mexico and Peru, the Spanish 
Armada, Raleigh) ; James Barnes' Drake and His Yeomen. 

Problems for Further Study 

Why would no sailor to-day dare to raid and rob the towns of 
a friendly nation ^ Spain was the most important European 
country at the time of which we are studying; what are the 
most important European countries to-day ? 



CHAPTER IV 

WESTWARD, HO! 

The Problem : Finding Settlers for the New World. 

Spanish sea power was broken with the defeat of the 
Armada. The way to America was open to the 
EngHsh. But who would go there to Hve ? That was 
the question. Why should any one leave a home in 
England to brave the terrors of the deep and a wilder- 
ness three thousand miles away ? To conquer was one 
thing. To settle was another. Conquest oflFered riches 
and enjoyment on the return home. Settlement of- 
fered the hardest of work and no promise of a home- 
ward voyage. Nevertheless, settlers did follow the 
conquerors to the New World. 

The truth is, not all the people of England were 
happy and well-to-do. Some of them were ill-treated 
because their religious opinions did not agree with those 
that the rulers favored. Others were poor, and anxious 
to find better homes for themselves and their children. 
Others were venturesome, and ready to try anything 
that offered excitement, as well as a chance to improve 
their lot. 

I. Founding Virginia 

John Smith, the Adventurer. Among the many 
English soldiers of that day was a remarkable man 

51 



52 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



by the name of Captain John Smith. He was born In 
the days of Queen Ehzabeth, the son of a poor farmer. 




The Southern Colonies 

At free schools near his home he learned to read and 
write. At the age of fifteen he was apprenticed to a 
trade. This was too dull for his fierce spirit. If we 



WESTWARD, HO! 



53 



may believe all the tales about him, he early began 
a stormy career — a career as strange as any man 
ever had. 

Before Smith was twenty he was fighting against the 
Spaniards in the Netherlands. Anxious to see the 
world, he cruised about in the Mediterranean. He 
saw the Pope at Rome. He 
fought against the Turks and 
was taken prisoner and sold 
as a slave. He was so cruelly 
treated that he could not 
bear it, and by good luck 
managed to escape. 

The Virginia Company. 
Shortly after Smith's return 
to England, some London 
merchants formed a company 
for the purpose of founding 
a colony in Virginia. In 1606 
they obtained a charter from 
King James I. They col- 
lected a number of settlers 
and were only too glad to have Captain John Smith 
go with them. In 1607 the colonists landed in Virginia 
and planted a post at Jamestown. 

Smith was a man of action and rendered great 
services to the struggling colony. He explored the 
neighboring country. He visited the Indians and 
bought supplies from them. According to one of 




Captain John Smith, a Leader 

AMONG THE SeTTLERS WhO 

Founded Jamestown, Virginia, 
IN 1607 



54 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



his stories he was captured by an Indian chief, 
Powhatan, and was about to be killed when the chief's 
daughter, Pocahontas, rushed forward and saved his 
life. No doubt there was an Indian princess who 




The Homestead on a Virginia Plantation Built in the Early Days of the 

Colony 

often visited the English camp and finally married 
one of the settlers, John Rolfe. That she saved 
Smith's life is thought to be an imaginary tale. 

Smith did not need this story to make him famous. 
He was a skillful man in dealing with the Indians. 



WESTWARD, HO! 55 

He worked hard himself in the colony and had plenty 
of common sense. It was a sad day, indeed, for the 
colony when he was badly burnt by an explosion of 
gunpowder and had to go back to England in 1609. 

Other leaders came, and Virginia, after many trying 
years, began to flourish. More and more settlers 
appeared. Tobacco planting was introduced and 
proved to be a profitable business. African slaves 
were brought into the colony in 1619. Since they hac 
an abundance of cheap labor at hand, the Virginians 
quickly spread in every direction, laying out their huge 
plantations. 

In 1624 the Virginia Company was broken up, and 
the King took over the government of Virginia. From 
that time until the American Revolution it was a royal 
province. The King, however, did not intrust all 
power to his governor in Virginia. The voters in the 
colony were allowed to choose representatives for an 
assembly. This assembly, or House of Burgesses, as 
it was called, joined with the governor and his council 
in making laws and laying taxes. 

II. Virginia's Neighbors 

Lord Baltimore and Maryland. Among the close 
friends of King James I was a young Oxford grad- 
uate, by the name of George Calvert. Though he 
was a Catholic in his religious faith and James I was 
a Protestant, the King was very fond of him and 
made him a nobleman, with the title of Lord Baltimore. 



56 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

At that time all Catholics were forbidden to worship 
God in their own w^ay in England. Lord Baltimore 
was therefore anxious to find a place for them to en- 
joy religious liberty in the New World. He visited 
Virginia and was so pleased with the climate and the 
soil that he asked the King for a grant of land in that 
neighborhood. The King consented and the charter 
was all made out when, in 1632, Lord Baltimore died. 

His son, Cecil Calvert, the second Lord Baltimore, 
took up the work which the father had planned. He 
sent out settlers who planted the colony of Maryland. 
Freedom of worship was soon granted to all Christians, 
and the colony prospered. Except for a short time, 
it remained under the mild rule of the Baltimore family 
until the eve of American independence. The town 
of Baltimore became one of the leading cities of colo- 
nial times. 

The Carolinas. From Virginia, adventurous pioneers 
went south to the frontier and opened up new lands. 
The English King, Charles H, hearing of the fine 
country south of Virginia, granted it to eight noble- 
men, all good and faithful friends. Under these " pro- 
prietors," colonies were planted at Albemarle and at 
Charleston. The mild climate of Carolina, as the 
colony was called, attracted people who wanted to 
escape from the rigors of the colder North. Trade with 
England flourished. The cultivation of rice and 
tobacco as well as Lidian corn and wheat made hun- 
dreds of planters and farmers prosperous. 



WESTWARD, HO! 57 

Prosperity, however, brought troubles for the pro- 
prietors. The people showed an independent spirit. 
They objected to paying taxes. They protested against 
the governors who were sent over from England. In- 
deed, the citizens of Albemarle drove out one governor 
who had the habit of taking, for his own use, pigs and 
cows and pewter cups or anything else he liked. At 
length the proprietors, weary of governing unruly 
subjects, were glad to sell out to the King at a moderate 
price in 1729. Carolina was divided into two sections, 
North and South Carolina. Royal colonies they re- 
mained until they became independent American states. 

III. The New England Colonies 

The Pilgrims. On a cheerless winter day in Decem- 
ber, 1620, one of the most striking scenes in American 
history occurred on the barren shores of Massachu- 
setts. A little ship, the Mayflower, celebrated for all 
time, anchored off the coast near the present site 
of Plymouth. On board was a small company of men 
and women, Pilgrims from old England to new Eng- 
land. They had fled from their homes because they 
were persecuted for their religious opinions. They 
had come to found a colony where they could worship 
God in a way that was not approved by the government 
and Church of England. 

The Mayflower Compact. Before the men went ashore 
they met in the cabin and agreed to form a government 
of their own. All promised to abide by the rules. 



58 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



The paper which they signed is known as the Mayflower 
Compact — the first written plan for self-government 
made in America. 

The Terrible Winter. At Plymouth Rock the 
Pilgrims landed. With might and main they set to 




Early New England Settlements 



WESTWARD, HO! 59 

work to cut trees and build a large log house. It 
was slow work and the winter was bitterly cold. 
When the spring sun came again, half the little com- 
pany had died. The rest kept their courage in spite of 
their terrible troubles. 

Pilgrim Leaders. They had among them several 
men of great ability who were given leadership. One 
was Captain Miles Standish. He led an exploring 
party that first searched the wild country for game and 
food. He built a fort for defense against the Indians. 
Another leader was Governor Bradford, who wrote 
a wonderful story about the early days of the Pilgrim 
colony. 

Pilgrims and Indians. Fortunately the Pilgrims 
had little trouble with the natives. Two Indians, 
Samoset and Squanto, visited them and helped them 
to plant corn and make snowshoes and moccasins. 
They brought other Indians, who were pleased to 
see the many curious things owned by the white 
strangers. One day a great Indian chief, Massasoit, 
came to the colony and held a council with the Pilgrim 
fathers. They all agreed to be friends and keep the 
peace. Had the Indians been hostile and warlike, they 
might easily have destroyed the tiny colony while it 
was very weak. 

John Winthrop and the Puritans. Several miles up 
the Massachusetts coast at Boston and Salem, two 
other English colonies were founded about ten years 
after the landing of the Pilgrims. The newcomers 



6o 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 




:: o 



:i S 



WESTWARD, HO! 



6i 



were also seeking a place to worship God in their own 
way. They were called Puritans on account of their 
religious views. Their leader was Governor John 
Winthrop. 

The Puritans were more numerous than the Pilgrims. 
They had eleven ships and a company of a thousand 
people. They also 
had great stores of 
supplies, grain, and 
cattle. Their voy- 
age across the ocean 
was a stormy one. 
Their cattle were 
badly bruised by the 
rolling of the little 
ships. Only by good 
management were 
they able to get 
safely ashore. 

The Puritans at 
Work. The Puri- 
tans selected the 
port of Boston as 
their chief center. 
With great energy 
they went to work 
to clear the land and build houses, churches, and 
schools. Governor Winthrcp himself worked with ax 
and hammer. 




John Winthrop, One of the Founders of 
Massachusetts and First Governor of the 
Colony 



62 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

Steadily the Puritans pushed inland, building their 
towns as they went. More settlers came from Eng- 
land. Baptists, Quakers, and other religious sects 
appeared. These new sects disturbed the peace of 
the Puritans, who wanted to be let alone in their 
new home. The Massachusetts people had many 
quarrels among themselves, and there were some 
dreadful wars with the Indians, in spite of early 
friendships. All together the days of the colony were 
full of trouble. 

Roger Williams and the Puritans. In the winter 
of 163 1 there appeared in Boston a young preacher by 
the name of Roger Williams. He had ideas of his own. 
For instance, he believed that the government and 
the church should not be united at all. As things 
were then managed in Massachusetts, the men in the 
church congregation also governed the town. No 
one who was not a church member could vote. 
Williams thought this all wrong and said so. 

Owing to his views, he made many enemies and was 
driven from town to town. He lived for a while in 
Plymouth. There he got into difficulty because he 
said that lands should be bought from the Indians and 
paid for. This angered the Pilgrims and Williams 
had to leave. He then tried preaching in Salem. 
Soon he was in trouble again, and finally he was 
banished from Massachusetts in 1636. 

The Founding of Providence. Williams fled into 
the wilderness to the southwest and founded the 



WESTWARD, HO! 



63 



colony of Providence. He was kind to the Indians 
and paid them for the lands he occupied. He invited 
all those who were poor or were persecuted in the 
other New England towns to come and find peace with 
him. Many came. A compact or plan of government 
was drawn up and signed. Five of the signers were 
poor and uneducated men 
who could not write. 
They could only make 
their marks. 

Anne Hutchinson. Not 
long afterward, Anne 
Hutchinson, a prominent 
woman of Massachusetts, 
with her followers, settled 
in the region opened up 
by Williams. Her diffi- 
culty in Massachusetts The Church in Which Roger Williams 

Preached at Salem, Massachusetts 

had also arisen on account 

of her opinions. She insisted that women had a right 
to hold meetings of their own to discuss the sermons 
and criticize the town officers just as men did. This 
shocked the Puritan fathers. They declared that her 
meetings were " disorderly and without rule " ; and 
they banished her and many of her friends. Others 
who shared her views went out with her to seek homes 
at Newport. 

At a later time the new towns on Narragansett Bay 
were united in the colony of Rhode Island. 







64 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



Thomas Hooker and Connecticut. Another dispute 
over reHgious matters led to the founding of the colony 
of Connecticut. At Newton, near Boston, there lived 
an able clergyman, Thomas Hooker, whose opinions 

also disturbed some 
of the Massachu- 
setts people. He 
was not banished, 
however. He sim- 
ply decided to seek 
a distant place 
where he and his 
congregation could 
have more freedom. 
The Three 
Towns. With a 
goodly company, 
Hooker migrated 
westward and set- 
tled in the valley 
of the Connecticut 
River. Three tiny 
towns were built at 
Hartford, Windsor, 
and Wethersfield. 
Religious and political matters were not so closely 
united there as in Boston. In 1639 the voters drew 
up a compact of government. Other towns were 
founded along the shore, and all of them were, in after 




The Pilgrims Had to Be on Their Guard 
Against the Indians Even When Going to 
AND FROM Church 

From a painting by Boughton 



WESTWARD, HO! 65 

years, united by the King of England into a single 
colony — Connecticut. 

Thus it is seen that Rhode Island and Connecticut 
were offshoots of the colony at Massachusetts Bay. 
New Hampshire likewise sprang from the same center. 

Life in New England. All the New England colonies 
were very much alike. The settlers did not spread 
out on great plantations as in Virginia. They dwelt 
close together in towns with their farm lands round 
about them. The winters were long and cold. The 
summers were short. The fields were stony and hilly 
and only by very hard work could crops be grown. 
Slavery was introduced but did not flourish. The 
white men and women had to do their own work indoors 
and in the fields. There were many waterfalls, and 
the settlers soon had water wheels turning sawmills 
and gristmills. The New Englanders had fine timber, 
and they built ships for fishing and for trade with all 
parts of Europe and the West Indies. 

IV. Henry Hudson and the Hudson Valley 

Hudson and Russia. Among the English friends 
of Captain John Smith was a navigator by the name 
of Henry Hudson. Who Hudson's parents were and 
where he was born we do not know. He first appears 
clearly in history as the navigator for an English 
Company trading with Russia. In 1607 and 1608 
he made two voyages to the far Northeast, and tried 
to reach the ports of eastern Asia by way of the 



66 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

Arctic regions. He failed in this, but he proved him- 
self a brave and able seaman. 

In Dutch Service. The Dutch East India Company 
heard of him and employed him to make a voyage 
in its service. With two ships he sailed again in 
search of a northeast passage to Asia. The crew 
of one of the ships mutinied and returned home, and 
Hudson had to give up that plan. Still he was not a 
man to be daunted by such a misadventure. 

The Hudson River. If he could not find a passage 
to Asia by one way, he would try another. In the 
ship Half Moon, he sailed across the Atlantic to the 
coast of Nova Scotia. He searched the Atlantic 
shores for a northwest passage. On September 3, 
1609, he was at the mouth of the river that bears his 
name, somewhere near Staten Island. The broad 
expanse of water reaching inland seemed to promise 
the long-sought northwest passage. 

Full of hope, the captain of the Half Moon sailed 
up the river. The Indians were glad to see the white 
men. They brought green tobacco to trade for knives 
and beads. In the journal kept on the ship it is re- 
corded of the natives : " They go in deer skins, loose, 
well dressed. They have yellow copper. They desire 
clothes and are very civil. They have great store of 
maize or Indian wheat, whereof they make good bread." 
Before he had gone far, however, Hudson had some 
trouble with the Indians. One of them tried to steal 
a pillow and some shirts, and a fight followed. 



WESTWARD, HO! ^-J 

Leaving the island of Manhattan, Hudson sailed 
steadily up the river until, by the 22d of September, 
he was somewhere above the present site of the city 
of Albany. The sounding line showed only about 
seven feet of water. It was evident that the river was 
no northwest passage to the Pacific. So Hudson 
turned his ship back upon her course. 

On October 4 he bade farewell to the shores which 
the natives called Manna-hatta, and sailed away for 
the Netherlands. He put in at an English port, where 
he received an order from the King of England for- 
bidding him to serve the Dutch any longer. 

The Sad Fate of Hudson. The next year he sailed 
again for the English company which he had served 
before. He found his way into the great bay now 
called Hudson Bay, and searched far and wide for the 
long-sought passage to the Pacific. His men clamored 
to go home. He refused point-blank. Then they 
mutinied, and turned him, with his little son and 
several sick men, adrift in an open boat. Somewhere 
in the wild waste of waters they all perished miserably. 
An expedition, sent out from England to search for 
them, could find no trace of men or boat. 

The Dutch Settle at Manhattan. Though Henry 
Hudson did not return to Holland, the Dutch laid claim 
to the country he had explored. Within three years they 
had built four log houses on Manhattan island and had 
started a profitable fur trade with the Indians. They 
explored Long Island Sound and rounded Cape Cod. 



68 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



In 1623 the Dutch West India Company was per- 
mitted to trade and to plant settlements in the valley 
of the " North River," as the Hudson was then called. 
In that year a party of permanent settlers arrived at 
Manhattan. One post was established on the island, 
another on the shore of Long Island near Brooklyn, 

and still another far 
up the river at Fort 
Orange, on the site of 
the present city of 
Albany. 

New Amsterdam. In 
1626 Governor Peter 
Minuit came to Man- 
hattan and bought the 
whole island from the 
Indians for sixty guil- 
ders, worth fifty or sixty 
dollars in our money 
to-day. A fort was 
built at the lower end 
of the island. The town that grew near the fort was 
known as New Amsterdam and the region claimed by 
the Dutch was called New Netherland. 

Some time later the West India Company granted 
immense estates on the east and west banks of the 
Hudson to " patroons," or rich men, who undertook 
to bring over bands of settlers. Each successful 
patroon was the lord of an estate with a large num- 




ATLANTIC 
OCEAN 



Early Dutch Settlements near the 
Mouth of the Hudson River 



WESTWARD, HO! 69 

ber of tenants. Sturdy Dutch farmers and merchants 
came in increasing numbers and the colony flourished. 
Governor Peter Stuyvesant. In the summer of 1647 
the last of a long line of Dutch governors arrived in the 
New Netherland, — Peter Stuyvesant, He was " a val- 
iant, weather-beaten, mettlesome, obstinate, leathern- 
sided, lion-hearted, generous-spirited " old fellow, who 




An Interior View of an Old Dutch Farmhouse Built When New York 
Was New Netherland 

had lost one leg in battle. When he stepped ashore he 
made a brief speech, saying, " I shall govern you as a 
father his children, for the advantage of the chartered 
West India Company, and these burghers, and this 
land." He proved to be a stern father. When some 
men threatened to appeal over his head to the govern- 



70 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



ment at home, the irate Peter blurted out, " If any 
man tries to appeal from me to the States General, I 
will make him a foot shorter." 

The English Seize New Amsterdam. The English 
had from the first objected to the Dutch claims 

to American terri- 
tory, and claimed 
the whole coast as 
their own. In 1664 
KingCharlescoolly 
granted New Neth- 
erland to his 
brother, the Duke 
of York and Al- 
bany. Late in the 
summer of that 
year Governor 
Stuyvesant saw 
sailing into his har- 
bor a fleet of 
English warships. 
The English com- 
mander summoned 
him to surrender. 
Stuyvesant fumed, 
tore up the letter, 
and ordered his men to prepare to fight. That was 
sheer folly, for, as one of them said to him, " Of 
what avail are our poor guns against that broadside 




Peter Stuyvesant, the Dutch Governor of New- 
York, Flew into a Rage When the English 
Called on Him to Surrender in 1664 



WESTWARD, HO! 



71 



of more than sixty ? It is wrong to shed blood to 
no purpose." Forced to obey his own people, the 
angry Dutch governor gave up, crying out, " I had 
rather be carried to my grave." The white flag was 
raised over Fort Amsterdam. New Netherland passed 
under English rule, and there it remained, save for a 
short period, until the American Revolution. 




A \ lEw OF New York City in 1746 

New York. The colony took an English name. It 
was called New York in honor of its proprietor, the 
Duke of York. New Amsterdam became New York 
City. Fort Orange became Albany. All about, how- 
ever, remained signs of the old Dutch days. The names 
of villages and streets told of their work. To this 
day many an ancient Dutch farmhouse with its great 
kitchen and oven reminds us of the time of Peter 



72 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

Stuyvesant. Indeed the Dutch settlers went on calmly 
with their farming and trading as the stream of English 
settlers poured into the colony. They learned the 
English tongue and most of them took the part of the 
English settlers in their later quarrels with the Eng- 
lish government. 

When the Duke of York became King James II 
in 1685, the colony of New York was made a royal 
province. In time, an assembly elected by the voters 
was created, so that the colonists might have a voice 
in managing their affairs. Missionaries came out to es- 
tablish the Church of England in the province. King's 
College was founded in 1754, to train the youth in that 
faith to keep them from being influenced by the be- 
liefs of Puritan New England. 

New Jersey. In the year that the Duke of York 
took possession of New Netherland, he granted to two 
friends, Carteret and Berkeley, all the land between 
the Hudson and the Delaware rivers. This province 
was called New Jersey, because Carteret had once 
been governor of the island of Jersey, the home of his 
family, in the English Channel. 

In 1665 Carteret sent over a band of settlers 
and founded a post at Elizabethtown, named after 
his wife. The following year some Puritans from 
Connecticut built a town on the Passaic, calling it 
first Milford and then Newark. Later, Quakers from 
England and many Scotch-Irish sought homes in the 
new colony. In 1702 New Jersey became a royal 



WESTWARD, HO! 73 

province attached to New York. Thirty-six years 
later it was separated from its neighbor across the river 
and given a royal governor of its own. 

V. William Penn — Pennsylvania and Delaware 

William Penn at College. In the year 1660 there 
entered Christ Church, one of the colleges of old Oxford, 
a tall, dark-haired youth by the name of William Penn. 
His father was a man of great wealth and high position 
— an Admiral in the English navy and a member of 
Parliament. The youth plunged into the life of 
Oxford with zeal. He was both a scholar and an 
athlete. He was good at the oars on the Thames 
River and equally good at Greek, Latin, French, Ger- 
man, and Dutch. 

The Quakers. Penn seemed on the highroad to 
fame and honor, when suddenly he gave up the re- 
ligious faith of his fathers and joined a sect known 
as the Quakers, or Friends. They disliked most of 
the ceremonies of the Church of England and thought 
the important thing was to live a kindly Christian life. 
Indeed their very name, " Friends," indicated their 
spirit. They were firmly opposed to all wars and per- 
secution. They believed in conquering enemies by 
gentleness and good will. 

When Penn took up this faith he got into trouble with 
his college and his father. He was eitherexpelled or taken 
out of school. At last he landed in prison, where he was 
kept for many months among the common criminals. 



74 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

Penn Interested in America. In the course of time 
Penn grew interested in America, to which many 
Quakers were turning for relief from persecution. 
It so happened that on the death of his father he fell 
heir to a claim of many thousand pounds against the 
King. After some discussion he offered to accept as 
payment a grant of land in America. The King yielded 
and gave him a charter to a tract named Pennsylvania, 
or Penn's Woods, in honor of Admiral Penn. Of this 
tract William Penn was made the proprietor. 

Late in the summer of 1682 Penn sailed for the 
New World. Already hundreds of Quakers had found 
homes on the banks of the Delaware, After cruising 
about for a while and visiting many places, Penn finally 
settled on a spot where the Schuylkill and the Delaware 
rivers flowed together. There he founded Philadelphia, 
*' the city of brotherly love." At the end of 1683 
there were more than 350 houses, some of them built 
of brick. Penn built a brick house for himself, and 
the work was so well done that it stands to this day. 

Penn Seeks Settlers. In accordance with his liberal 
ideas Penn granted liberty of worship to all who be- 
heved in God. He gave the voters a share in the 
government by allowing them to elect an assembly. 
He invited the poor and oppressed from all parts of 
Europe to come and settle upon his lands. His call 
was soon heard. From Holland, France, and Ger- 
many, as well as England and Wales, settlers poured 
into Pennsylvania. 



WESTWARD, HO! 



75 




76 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

Thousands of them were too poor to pay their 
passage over. To meet this difficulty, they bound 
themselves to labor for a term of years, after their 
arrival, in return for passage money or the passage 
itself. Those who did this were called " bond serv- 
ants" or " indentured servants." They were not 
slaves, because at the end of the term they were free 
to go where they wished and make homes for them- 
selves. About two thirds of those who migrated to 
Pennsylvania in the eighteenth century were bond 
servants. Such immigrants were found in other 
colonies also. 

Pennsylvania and Delaware. As things stood when 
Penn obtained his charter, his great domain was cut 
oflF from the sea by New Jersey on the east and by 
Delaware on the south. Delaware was first settled 
by the Swedes. Their leader, strange to say, was 
Peter Minuit, who had been the first governor of the 
Dutch colony of New Netherland, and who had been 
dismissed, as he thought, very unjustly. 

Minuit had then entered the service of Sweden, 
and in 1638 brought colonists over to the west bank of 
the Delaware. From the natives he bought land 
near the sites of the present cities of Newcastle and 
Wilmington. He built a blockhouse which he named 
Fort Christina in honor of the Queen of Sweden. 

For several years the tiny colony lived in peace, 
planting and trading with the Indians. All together, 
there were about 500 people in "New Sweden" in 1655. 



WESTWARD, HO! ^-J 

In the summer of that year Governor Peter Stuyvesant 
of New Netherland swept up the Delaware River and 
called upon the Swedes to surrender. They yielded 
to the superior force and raised the Dutch flag. It 
did not fly very long, for In a few years the English 
in turn ousted the Dutch. 

' In 1682 Delaware was granted to Penn, and until 
the War of American Independence it had the same 
governor as Pennsylvania, a member of the Penn 
family. In 1703, however, it was given a separate 
assembly of its own. 

VI. James Oglethorpe and Georgia 

Oglethorpe, the Soldier. A few days before Christ- 
mas, in 1696, there was born in London a child who was 
to win " a very high place among the heroes of American 
history," James Oglethorpe. In his youth he served 
in the army. In his manhood he became the founder 
of the colony of Georgia. 

A story of his soldier days illustrates both his courage 
and his quick wit. While he was in Europe, an insolent 
prince tossed a few drops of wine from a glass into 
Oglethorpe's face. This put the young soldier in a 
difficult situation. If he challenged the prince to a 
duel, he would be called quarrelsome. If he paid no 
attention, he would be called a coward. Oglethorpe 
smiled and said : " That is a good joke, but we do 
it much better in England." Thereupon he threw a 
whole glass of wine into the prince's face. An old 



78 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

general sitting by laughed heartily and said : " He is 
right, my prince ; you commenced it." 

State of Prisoners in England. Though a seasoned 
soldier, Oglethorpe was a kind-hearted man and grieved 
at the misery in the world. He was specially moved 
by religious persecution and by Imprisonment for debt. 
According to the law in England in those days, any 
unfortunate man who could not pay his debts was 
put into jail. In hard times, the jails were filled with 
poor men whose sole crime was their inability to pay 
their creditors. 

Georgia Founded. Oglethorpe decided to found a 
colony for the poor and unfortunate. In 1732 he 
obtained from George II a charter to lands south of 
the Savannah River. He brought soldiers and debtors 
with him. In honor of the King, the new colony was 
called Georgia. Still more settlers came, and a pros- 
perous colony grew up under genial southern skies. 
In 1752 Georgia became a royal province. 

Questions and Exercises 

In what ways does the work of settlers differ from the work of 
treasure-seekers or fighters ? Why was it easier to find men to 
search for gold in the New World and to conquer the natives than 
to find men to go out with their families to make homes and to 
tin the soil ? 

I. To which group of men do you think that John Smith 
belonged, — the fighters and treasure-seekers or the settlers ? 
Among all the Englishmen who came to America In his time, why 
is his name remembered so well ? Find on the map Virginia and 



WESTWARD, HO! 79 

Jamestown. What is meant by a plantation ? What is meant by 
representatives in a government ? Whom did the members of 
the House of Burgesses in Virginia represent ? Who are the people 
that now represent you in the government of the United States ? 

II. Locate Maryland and Baltimore. For whom was the city 
of Baltimore named ^ W'hat is meant by religious liberty ? There 
are in our country two great branches of the Christian religion, — 
the Catholics and the Protestants ; name some branches of the 
Protestant faith. Locate North Carolina, South Carolina, 
Albemarle, Charleston. The text states that the king of England 
granted the Carolinas to noblemen ; what is meant by this word ^ 
W^hat is the difference between a proprietary colony and a royal 
colony .'' 

III. Find on the map Massachusetts and Plymouth. Why 
was it more difficult to settle on the coast of Massachusetts than 
in Virginia or the Carolinas .'' What are some of the difficulties 
that the Pilgrims met during their first winter in Plymouth ^ How 
did their government at first differ from that of the settlers in 
\'irginia ^ Locate Boston and Salem. In what ways were the 
Puritan settlers at these places like the Pilgrim settlers at Plym- 
outh ? In what ways were they different ^ What is meant by 
a religious sect f Name some religious sects that you know 
about. How did the people of Alassachusetts treat newcomers 
who did not believe as they did in matters of religion ^ In what 
colony that we have studied about did the people welcome new- 
comers of different religious beliefs ^ What colonies were first 
settled by people who left Massachusetts because of the in- 
tolerance of the Puritans .? W^hy are the names of Roger W^il- 
liams and Anne Hutchinson remembered } Give as many reasons 
as you can think of to explain why the settlers in New England 
gave more attention to manufacturing, shipbuilding, and fishing 
than did the people of Virginia and the Carolinas. Locate Rhode 
Island, Connecticut, New Hampshire, Providence, Hartford, 
W^ethersfield, and Windsor. 



8o A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

IV. What country is the home of the Dutch people ? Find 
this country on the map of Europe. In what direction and through 
what waters had Vasco da Gama and other Portuguese sailors 
reached the Far East ? In what direction and through what 
waters had Magellan and Drake sailed in going from the Atlantic 
to the Pacific ? In what direction and through what waters did 
Henry Hudson first try to reach eastern Asia .'' Study a large 
map showing Europe and Asia and find whether it would be 
possible to make a water trip from Europe to the Pacific Ocean 
by the route that Hudson first tried. He finally attempted to 
find a "Northwest Passage" to the Pacific; study a large map 
of North America and find whether this would have been possible. 
Why can we say that discovery of the Hudson River was really 
the result of an accident .'' Find on the map the Hudson River, 
Staten Island, Manhattan Island. What city is now located in 
part on these islands ^ What name was first given to this settle- 
ment by the Dutch ? Locate Albany. How did the English come 
into possession of the Dutch settlements ^ Find New Jersey on 
the map. Between what great rivers does the northern part of 
New Jersey lie ^ Locate Elizabeth, Newark. 

V. In what ways do the Quakers difi'er from other Protestant 
sects ? What other sects that we have studied about were per- 
secuted in England at this time and what colonies were founded 
in America as a refuge from the persecutions ^ How did the 
Quakers happen to settle in Philadelphia and the country round 
about ? How did the Quakers treat people who did not agree 
with them in religion? In what other colonies have we found 
a similar treatment ? Locate on the map Pennsylvania, the 
Delaware River, the Schuylkill River, Philadelphia. From 
what country did the first settlers in Delaware come ? Find 
this country on a map of Europe. Locate Delaware and 
Wilmington. 

VI. Locate Georgia. What is meant by imprisonment for 
debt ? Can you think of any reasons why it is unwise as well as 



WESTWARD, HO! 8 1 

unjust to send men to prison for not paying their debts r Georgia 
was at first a refuge for debtors ; what other colonies had been 
founded as places of refuge for people who were ill-treated in 
England ? In what ways do you think that the early settlers in 
Georgia differed from the settlers in these other "refuge" colonies ? 

Suggestions for Reading 

Hart's Source Readers in American History, No. i, Colonial 
Children, pp. 133-152, 165-182 (describes life in the various colo- 
nies) ; Helen A. Smith and S. T. Button's The Colonies (treats of 
all the colonies) ; Gertrude L. Stone and M. Grace Pickett's 
Everyday Life in the Colonies (information in story form on colonial 
life in New England, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Virginia, and 
Georgia) ; James Johonnot's Stories of Our Country, pp. 15-23 (John 
Smith), pp. 24-29 (Henry Hudson), pp. 32-37 (Roger Williams), pp. 
72-77 (Wm. Penn) ; Eggleston's Our First Century, pp. 21-60 (Vir- 
ginia), pp. 61-100 (New England), pp. 106-110 (Maryland), pp. 
1 15-128 (the Carolinas), pp. 129-138 (New Jersey and Pennsyl- 
vania) ; Roland G. Usher's The Story of the Pilgrims for Children; 
Tappan's American Hero Stories, pp. 38-48 (John Smith), pp. 
59-72 (Miles Standish), pp. 73-84 (Peter Stuyvesant), pp. 108- 
117 (Wm. Penn); Southworth's Builders of Our Country, pp. 73- 
88 (John Smith), pp. 89-100 (Miles Standish), pp. 101-109 (John 
Winthrop), pp. 110-114 (Roger Williams), pp. 123-129 (Henry 
Hudson), pp. 1 30-141 (Peter Minuit and Peter Stuyvesant) ; pp. 
179-186 (Lord Baltimore), pp. 187-196 (Wm. Penn), pp. 197-200 
(James Oglethorpe) ; McMurry's Pioneers on Land and Sea, pp. 
68-102, 108-121 (John Smith), pp. 35-46 (Henry Hudson) ; Dick- 
son's Camp and Trail iji Early American History, pp. 129-148 
(Peter Stuyvesant) ; Rossiter Johnson's Captain John Smith and 
R. S. Holland's William Penn in True Stories of Great Americans. 



82 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

Problems for Further Study 

Compare the way that immigrants come to our country to-day 
with the way that they came in colonial times. Do immigrants 
have the same reasons for coming to-day ? Why did the colonists 
usually settle either on the seacoast or along the banks of the 
rivers ? Give as many facts as you can showing that the people 
of this country to-day enjoy religious liberty. 



CHAPTER V 
THE CLASH OF EMPIRES IN AMERICA 

The Problem : Two Ambitious Nations and a Rich 
Territory. North and west of the English colonies 
stretched a vast domain of fertile lands, embracing 
the Mississippi Valley and the region of the Great Lakes. 
From their outposts in Canada the French looked upon 
this territory and longed to possess it. The English 
too became more and more interested as their frontier 
line moved inland from the seaboard. Both peoples 
were energetic and ambitious. Neither was willing to 
see the other gain any great advantage in the race for 
the possession of new territory. 

Thus a grave problem arose for the statesmen of 
both countries. It was, in brief, this : " How can 
we occupy and hold securely the western country ? " 
The solution of the problem called for explorers, 
hunters, soldiers, and settlers. Finally the efforts of 
the two nations ended in a clash of arms which de- 
cided the fate of North America. 

I. French Ambitions and La Salle 

The Grand Monarch. In 1643 a boy of five was 
proclaimed King of France. He was called Louis XIV 

83 



84 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



and he is known to history as " The Grand Monarch." 
For seventy-two years he ruled France, and during 




The Parts of America Which Were Claimed by England, France, and 

Spain 

his long reign his armies were fighting on the continent 
of Europe to win more territory and more glory. The 
fame of his generals spread throughout all Europe. 



THE CLASH OF EMPIRES IN AMERICA 



85 



While they were extending the power of France 
on the European continent, Louis' ministers and sub- 
jects decided to build a New France in Canada. 
Already a French explorer, Champlain, had ranged far 
and wide in the St. 
Lawrence region and 
had founded a post 
at Quebec (1608). A 
year before Louis came 
to the throne a fort 
had been built at 
Montreal. 

These, however, 
were but small be- 
ginnings. Something 
more would have to 
be done if France was 
to become a mighty 
power in America. 
New and daring pio- 
neer work was needed 
to carry the banner of 

Louis XIV west and Louis XIV, the Proud King of France, 

south from the posts 
on the St. Lawrence. 

La Salle. In the year that Louis XIV was crowned 
there was born at Rouen, an old town to the northwest 
of Paris, a boy who was to plant the French flag in 
the Mississippi Valley. The name of this child was 




Whose Name La Salle Gave to the Lou- 
isiana Territory 



86 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

Robert Chevalier, Sieur de la Salle. His father was a 
wealthy merchant and able to give Robert an excellent 
education. At one time the youth thought of becom- 
ing a priest in the Catholic church. But when his 
father died, he received a small sum of money from the 
estate and sailed away to Canada to seek his fortune. 
He was then twenty-three years old, — proud, ambitious, 
and headstrong. He did not care for games and pleas- 
ures, but longed to do something unusual in the world. 

La Salle and the Ohio River. As soon as La Salle 
reached Montreal, he began to study Indian languages 
and did not stop until he had mastered seven or eight 
of them. From the Indians he learned of a great 
river, the Ohio, that rose in the land of the Seneca- 
Iroquois Indians. This river, it was said, flowed 
south and west into the ocean. At once La Salle was 
fired with an idea. This, he thought, must be a water- 
way into the Pacific Ocean ! If so, it would be possible 
to reach China and Japan by water and win for 
France some of the trade that had enriched Spain and 
England. 

La Salle was a man of action. He hurried at once 
to the governor at Quebec and obtained the right 
to explore at his own expense. He sold some of his 
land and bought canoes. With a small party he 
paddled away from his post southwest of Montreal 
in the summer of 1669. Of his journey we know 
little. It appears that he went overland from Lake 
Erie until he reached a branch of the Ohio. Down 



THE CLASH OF EMPIRES IN AMERICA 87 

that river he floated as far, certainly, as the falls of the 
Ohio near the present site of Louisville, Kentucky. It 
may be that he went as far as the Mississippi. His 
men, worn out and afraid of the Indians, deserted and 
left him to find his way home alone as best he could 
through the forests. 

Exploring the Lake Region. The next year La 
Salle made another expedition into the West. He 
journeyed along the shores of Lake Ontario, carried 
his canoes around the falls of Niagara, and, launching 
them above the falls, paddled to Lake Erie. Follow- 
ing the shore of this lake he reached the Detroit 
River. Thence he proceeded northward through Lake 
Huron, and southward along the shores of Lake 
Michigan. Thence he crossed to a river flowing west- 
ward, the Illinois, and floated for a long distance on 
the current of that stream. It has been claimed that 
he even went down the Mississippi River; but this 
claim has not been proved. The honor of discovering 
the upper waters of that great river, in 1673, be- 
longs to two other Frenchmen, Father Marquette, 
a Catholic missionary, and Joliet, a ranger of the 
forests. 

La Salle's Plan. La Salle had seen the rich valley 
of the Ohio and the fertile prairies of the Illinois. 
Compared with Canada, that distant country seemed 
like a paradise. Through his earlier journeys. La Salle 
had learned the true course of the Ohio River, and had 
come to suspect that, through the Mississippi, its waters 



88 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

flowed southward into the Gulf of Mexico. He, there- 
fore, formed a plan to secure this river for his King 
against the advancing English. France already held 
the St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes. If the French 
had a fort at the mouth of the Mississippi and posts 
along the rivers flowing into it, they could possess the 
great West forever. So thought La Salle. 

After the idea came to him, he could not rest. He 
hastened to France to secure the approval of the King 
for his plans. In 1678 he obtained from Louis XIV 
permission " to labor at the discovery of the western 
parts of New France." He was also given the right to 
build forts at such places as he thought necessary. 
La Salle then borrowed money wherever he could get 
it. On a part of it he paid as high as forty per cent 
interest. He gathered a company of men about him 
and sailed for Canada. 

Down the Mississippi (1682). Early in August, 
1679, La Salle and his men started out upon Lake Erie. 
Keeping to the water route, they sailed and paddled 
until they reached the southern end of Lake Michigan. 
There they left the lake country for the Illinois River. 
After many wanderings (including a trip all the way 
back to Montreal) La Salle was at last out on the waters 
of the Mississippi in February, 1682. 

Once on the Mississippi, La Salle and his men 
found travel easy as compared with what they had 
suffered for three long years. Day after day they 
floated down the roUine flood. 



THE CLASH OF EMPIRES IN AMERICA 89 

Meetings with Indians. They often met friendly 
Indians. Near the Arkansas they had a jolly time 
with a tribe that bore the name of that river. " The 
whole village," wrote one of the voyagers afterwards, 
" came down to the shore to meet us, except the 
women, who had run off." For several days in March, 
they feasted and smoked with the Arkansas natives. 
A good priest preached to the savages, and La Salle got 
them to take an oath of loyalty to King Louis XIV. 
Still farther down, La Salle met the Natchez Indians. 
In their country also he erected a cross and proclaimed 
the rule of the King of France. 

Taking Possession of Louisiana. In a few more 
days he was at the mouth of the Mississippi, gazing 
upon the lonely waters of the Gulf of Mexico. The 
great deed was done. He had traversed the wilderness 
between Canada and the Gulf. Gathering his men 
around him. La Salle planted a column on which was 
written in French : " Louis the Great, King of France 
and Navarre, reigns ; April 9, 1682." The priests 
chanted their grandest hymns. The soldiers fired 
volleys from their muskets. 

Then, amid deep silence, La Salle strode to a place 
near the column and in a loud voice took possession 
of the land, " in the name of the most high, mighty, 
invincible, and victorious prince, Louis the Great." 
In honor of the King, he named the new country 
" Louisiana." His words were greeted with the rattle 
of musketry and cries of " Long live the King ! " 



90 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 




THE CLASH OF EMPIRES IN AMERICA 91 

A cross was placed beside the column and a leaden 
plate was buried near it bearing the arms of France. 
Then the company joined in the ancient hymn : 

"The banners of Heaven's King advance, 
The mystery of the Cross shines forth." 

As a result of La Salle's work the King of France 
laid claim to the whole of the Mississippi basin from 
the Allegheny Mountains to the Rocky Mountains, from 
the Rio Grande River to the Great Lakes. Verily it 
was a glorious day for the tireless voyager. 

The End of La Salle. La Salle was wise enough to 
know, however, that high-sounding words could not 
hold a country. He therefore went back to France 
to start another expedition. Again he was successful 
in finding men and money. In July, 1684, with four 
ships and a party of soldiers, mechanics, and their 
wives, he sailed for the mouth of the Mississippi to 
establish a fort and a settlement. In skirting along 
the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, he missed his goal and 
drifted to the coast of Texas. There his men grew im- 
patient and mutinous and one of them, hidden in the 
long grass, shot him dead. Thus perished La Salle, in 
1687. As one of his friends wrote, he was "one of the 
greatest men of this time." 

French Forts in the Ohio Country. The task so 
well begun by this bold explorer was carried forward 
by hundreds who came after him. All through the 
valleys of the Mississippi and the Ohio and around the 



92 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

Great Lakes French forts were built to hold the 
Louisiana territory. From New Orleans to Quebec 
these forts flew the flag of France. Finally, in 1753, 
a fort was built at Venango on a little stream that forms 
one of the upper branches of the Ohio. The French 
had now openly challenged the English. The governor 
of Virginia, heeding the challenge, sent young George 
Washington to warn them against violating English 
rights. 

II. George Washington and the French and Indian 

War 

The Virginia Youth. It was fitting that Washington 
should be chosen for this task. He had spent a long 
time on the frontier as a surveyor. He knew the 
wilderness and was deeply interested in the Ohio 
country. From early boyhood he had led an active 
life in the open air and was hardened for any task 
calling for bravery and endurance. 

Though the son of a well-to-do Virginia planter, 
Washington had never enjoyed the sheltered and soft 
life of luxury. His father died in 1743 when George was 
only eleven years old, and it was mainly to his elder 
brothers that he owed his early training. From one 
of them he inherited the fine old estate at Mt. Vernon. 

His Education. Only a few scraps of information 
about his education have come down to us. It is 
supposed that he attended school for a short time at 
Wakefield. We know that, while living at his mother's 



THE CLASH OF EMPIRES IN AMERICA 



93 



house, he was a pupil in a school kept by a clergyman 
in Fredericksburg, His school days, it seems, were 
brief. That he was a diligent pupil is shown by the 
copybooks which he wrote while a little boy. That 
he was a real boy is proved by the funny pictures of 




Mount Vernon, Washington's Home in Virginia 



birds and faces found scattered among his arithmetic 
problems. 

It is related that he was " good at figures," but his 
spelling and grammar were bad. His early education 
was limited mainly to reading, writing, and common 
arithmetic. To these he later added the art of sur- 
veying lands. Long after he was grown up he im- 
proved his style of writing by studying the best authors. 



94 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

His Appearance. When he reached manhood, Wash- 
ington was six feet two inches tall in his stocking feet. 
His frame was large and muscular. One who knew him 
well wrote of him : " His features are manly and bold, 
his eyes of a bluish cast and very lively ; his hair a 
deep brown, his face rather long and marked with 
smallpox ; his complexion sunburnt and without 
much color; and his countenance sensible, composed, 
and thoughtful ; there is a remarkable air of dignity 
about him." 

Washington Becomes a Pioneer. At the early age 
of sixteen, Washington was engaged by an English 
nobleman. Lord Fairfax, to survey his estate in western 
Virginia. This expedition carried him out to the 
frontier and gave him the first touch of rude life in the 
forests. Pleased with the work of the youth. Lord 
Fairfax secured for him the office of public surveyor. 
This post Washington filled with credit to himself for 
three years. Perhaps no one in Virginia was better 
fitted than he to carry a message from the Governor of 
Virginia to the French in the western wilderness. 

Washington Sent to Warn the French. With a small 
company of frontiersrrlen, Washington set out for the 
Ohio country to warn the French to keep off English 
territory. They pushed on through underbrush, for- 
est, and swamp until they reached the French post at 
Venango. In that region they found the French com- 
mander. They delivered the letter from the governor 
of Virginia and received a polite reply. On the way 



THE CLASH OF EMPIRES IN AMERICA 



95 



back, Washington had only one companion. He fell 
from a raft into a deep river, and in the night his clothes 
froze on his body. Indians waylaid the two men and 
tried to murder them. Wild beasts dogged their tracks, 




George Washington with His Companion Returning through the Wilder- 
ness FROM His Journey to Warn the French to Keep out of English 
Territory 

but they finally arrived safely at Williamsburg, the 
little capital of Virginia. 

Fighting in the West. In 1754 Washington was sent 
out with troops to the western part of Pennsylvania to 
repel the French, who had advanced in spite of his 
warning and had built Fort Duquesne at the point 
where the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers unite to 



96 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



form the Ohio, and where the city of Pittsburgh now 
stands. His troops soon clashed with the French 
and there was a sharp exchange of blows. This was 
the first blood shed in the French and Indian War 
that put an end to the rule of France in America. The 
French, roused by Washington's stroke, rallied new 
forces and attacked him at Fort Necessity. He was 
outnumbered and compelled to surrender. The French, 
however, let him return home. 

Braddock's Defeat. The next year the real struggle 
began. In 1755 an experienced English commander. 

General Braddock, arrived in 
Virginia with two regiments of 
picked men. All the people in the 
country about Alexandria came to 
see "the pomp and glitter." 
Washington looked on with eager 
eyes. Braddock heard of him 
and gave him a post on his staff. 
Braddock was narrow-minded 
and proud. When he moved his 
troops out into the wilderness 
against the French, he marched 
FEATED IN THE French AND them in full array with banners 

Indian War ^ . itt i • • i n 

nymg. Washmgton tried to tell 
him how frontiersmen fought behind trees and rocks. 
The haughty general refused to listen and ordered his 
men forward. Just after they crossed the Monongahela 
River, the Indians and French lired on them from 




Western Pennsylvania 
WHERE Braddock Was De- 



THE CLASH OF EMPIRES IN AMERICA 97 

bushes and behind trees. The forest rang with the war 
cries of savages who could not be seen, and bullets fiew 
thick and fast. 

As Washington had expected, the English troops 
were baffled. They were brave, but they had never 
seen fighting like this in a dense forest. They fled 
like deer. The few Virginia militiamen, trained in 
Indian warfare, could not rally them. Washington 
dashed into the midst of the fray. He tried to bring 
up the cannon, but the artillerymen would not fight. 
He ran hither and thither attempting to stay the rout. 
Two horses were shot down under him. Four bullets 
went through his coat. Braddock was mortally 
wounded and carried from the field dying. Washington 
came out of the terrible affair the one hero. Every- 
body knew that he was a real soldier, cool and brave 
under fire. He had seen British regulars beaten on 
American soil. He never forgot that July day in 1755. 
His countrymen never forgot it either. 

III. William Pitt, the Great Empire-Builder 

Pitt, the Statesman. Two years after the disaster 
to Braddock, a masterful man came to the head of 
affairs in England. This was William Pitt, a states- 
man of high renown. He was bom in November, 
1708, and was educated at the University of Oxford. 
He had entered Parliament while a young man and 
had spent his days in public life. 

When he became the King's high minister in 1757, 



98 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

Pitt saw that the British empire was in danger. He 
set vigorously to work to raise men and money to save 
it. The Prussians were fighting the French on the 
continent, so he helped them with money. He told 
his countrymen that he would conquer America for 
them in Germany. That was not quite true, for he 
sent fleets and armies to America to fight also. 

Pitt Sends General Wolfe to America. Seeing that 
things were not going well in America, Pitt looked about 
for a commander who could turn the tide of ill fortune. 
He found him in James Wolfe, then thirty-two years 
old. Wolfe's father was a soldier, and he had heard of 
arms and wars from his earliest childhood. At the 
age of sixteen he was fighting in great battles on the 
continent of Europe. At the age of twenty-three he 
was in command of a regiment. " My utmost desire 
and ambition," he wrote to his mother, " is to look 
steadily upon danger." 

This was the man that Pitt chose to overthrow 
French rule in North America. When the news got 
abroad that Wolfe was selected for the task, some one 
complained to the King, saying that the young general 
was mad. " Mad, is he ? " retorted the King. " Then 
I hope he will bite some others of my generals." In 
the winter of 1759 the " madman " sailed away with 
an army and a fleet for the St. Lawrence. 

The Capture of Quebec. In September of that 
year, after much fighting with no important results, 
Wolfe was on the St. Lawrence near Quebec. He de- 



THE CLASH OF EMPIRES IN AMERICA 99 

cided to take his men on a dark night up the high 
river bank to the plains near the city and attack the 
French. A friend who was with him that night tells 
us that the young general, as they rowed along with 
muffled oars, recited his favorite poem, Gray's " Elegy 
Written in a Country Church Yard." In it there 
is a line that proved to be a prophecy for him : 

"The paths of glory lead but to the grave." 

Silently Wolfe's men crept up to the plains near 
Quebec. Early in the morning the French General 
Montcalm was astonished to see them ready to at- 
tack. Wolfe led his men to the fray. A shot shattered 
his wrist. A second staggered him. A third brought 
him to earth, just as the cry rose that the French were 
running. Wolfe then gave his last orders and turned 
over on his side. " Now," he said, " God be praised, 
I shall die in peace." A little later the French com- 
mander, Montcalm, was mortally wounded also. In 
a few hours Quebec was surrendered to the British. 

For another year the contest between the English 
and the French went on. The colonial troops fought 
bravely on the frontiers. The French garrison at 
Montreal surrendered in 1760. Canada and the terri- 
tory as far west as the Mississippi, except New Orleans, 
passed under the British flag. New Orleans and 
Louisiana beyond the Mississippi were transferred to 
Spain by treaty. 

All through the English colonies there was great 



lOO 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



rejoicing. " God has given us to sing this day the 
downfall of New France . . . New England's rival ! " 
exclaimed a Puritan preacher when he heard the 
news. Another preacher predicted that the America 
now won for the British colonies would have sixty 




The Death of General Wolfe 
From a painting by Benjamin West 

million souls within a hundred and fifty years. " Let 
us fear God," he "said, " and honor the King and be 
peaceable subjects of an easy and happy government." 
The prophecy came true. There were many more 
than sixty million people in the United States in 1910. 
The prayer, however, was not fulfilled. The colonists 



THE CLASH OF EMPIRES IN AMERICA loi 

were not to be peaceable and happy subjects of an 
easy government. Within a few years they were to 
clash with the King of England and overthrow his 
armies on the field of battle. 

Questions and Exercises 

About what explorers sent out by the French have we already 
learned ? What parts of the New World did they visit ? 

I. The text states that Louis XIV was made King of France 
in 1643 ; does France have a king to-day ? Locate Quebec. What 
lake was named after the man who founded Quebec .'' Why did 
La Salle study the languages of the Indians ? Study a map of 
Ohio and find how La Salle might have passed with his canoes 
from Lake Erie to the Ohio River. Trace on a map the route 
that La Salle probably took in his later voyage when he reached 
the Mississippi. Trace the route that he took when he succeeded 
in reaching the mouth of the Mississippi. W^hat is meant by the 
Mississippi basin I Find on the map the states that now lie wholly 
or partly within the Mississippi basin. 

II. Find Mount Vernon on a map of Virginia. Near what city 
is it located } Thousands of people visit Mount Vernon every 
year; why .^ In what ways do you think that young George 
Washington was well fitted to carry the message from the Governor 
of Virginia to the French ? Why was this a difficult and danger- 
ous task .'' Trace the route that Washington and Gist took in 
traveling from Virginia to the French fort at Venango. Locate 
Fort Duquesne. Trace Braddock's march, and find on the map 
the point where he was defeated. 

III. What did William Pitt mean when he told the English 
people that he "would conquer America for them in Germany".'* 
Give as many reasons as you can to show why it was so important 
for the English to capture Quebec. Study the pictures showing 



I02 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

the fortress at Quebec and tell why it would be difficult to capture 
such a stronghold. 

Suggestions for Reading 

Guerber's Story of the Thirteen Colonies, pp. 174-183 (Cham- 
plain, Joliet, La Salle), pp. 191-199 (Washington's early life), pp. 
206-209 (Braddock's defeat) ; Dickson's Camp and Trail in Early 
American History, pp. 1 10-128 (La Salle); Tappan's American 
Hero Stories, pp. 96-107 (Marquette, La Salle), pp. 11 7-1 25 
(Washington), pp. 126-135 (Wolfe); Edward Channing and 
Marion Florence Lansing's The Story of the Great Lakes, pp. 49-72 
(La Salle) ; Southworth's Builders of Our Country, pp. 153-160 
(Champlain), pp. 226-243 (Montcalm and Wolfe) ; McMurry's 
Pioneers of the Mississippi Valley, pp. 16-53 (La Salle) ; Mc- 
Murry's Pioneers on Land and Sea, pp. 227-261 (Washington's 
early life) ; Louise S. Hasbrouck's La Salle, in True Stories of 
Great Americans ; Johonnot's Stories of Our Country, pp. 81-85 
(French and Indian War), pp. 85-94 (Washington). 

Problems for Further Study 

Make a careful study of the map of North America and find 
why the French settlers at Quebec and Montreal were able to 
go to the region of the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River 
more easily than the English settlers in Virginia, Pennsylvania, 
New York, and New England. England has owned Canada since 
1760; how many years have passed since that time } If you were 
to visit Quebec and Montreal, you would find a large number of 
people who do not speak English ; what language do you think 
they use and why } 



CHAPTER VI 

THE SPIRIT OF AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE 

The Problem : British Restrictions and American 
Energy. In 1763 war between England and France 
was brought to a close by a treaty of peace. 

The w^ar with France had been costly and the Eng- 
lish national debt was very large. English statesmen 
thought that the American colonists ought to help 
bear the expense. To the English this seemed just. 
Aioreover, it would reduce taxes at home. English 
leaders also thought that American trade and industry 
should be controlled in such a way as to benefit English 
merchants and manufacturers. The King of England, 
George III, was a very stubborn man, who had a high 
notion about his own rights and was bent on having 
his own way. He approved every plan brought up in 
Parliament to tax and control American colonies. 

The Americans, however, were sturdy, self-reliant, 
and independent in spirit. They had helped with 
men and money in the war with France. They were 
unwilling to be taxed by the British government three 
thousand miles away. They declared that they would 
only pay taxes which they voted themselves. They 
were also very enterprising in matters of trade. They 

103 



I04 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



could build ships as swift and strong as any that sailed 
the sea. They had iron and other natural resources. 
They wanted to manufacture for themselves. The 

Dutch and French 
were anxious to trade 
freely with them. The 
English government, 
however, would not let 
the Americans trade 
freely with other coun- 
tries. It also discour- 
aged manufacturing in 
the American colonies. 
The Americans, how- 
ever, were ready to 
defend their rights 
against all outside in- 
terference. 

Thus was created a 
grave problem both 
for the English gov- 
ernment and the 
American colonies. 
The English King 
and his supporters clung stoutly to their views. The 
Americans clung just as firmly to theirs. A clash of 
opinion could not be avoided. The King of England 
had his spokesmen. In the colonies many able men 
came forward to state the principles of American 




George III in Full Regalia Felt Himself 
Every Inch a King 

This is from a painting made while he was ruler of 
the American colonies 



THE SPIRIT OF AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE 



105 



liberty. Two of them, Samuel Adams of Massachusetts 
and Patrick Henry of Virginia, stood out above all 
others. In the story of their lives may be read the open- 
ing scenes of the struggle for American independence. 

I. Samuel Adams : The Man of the Town Meeting 

The Stamp Tax Opposed in Boston. In 1765 the 
news reached Boston that the British government had 
laid a stamp tax on 
papers, books, and docu- 
ments used in America. 
The money from the tax 
was to support British 
soldiers and officers in the 
colonies. 

Samuel Adams to the 
Front. People everywhere 
were indignant. In Bos- 
ton they found a spokes- 
man in Samuel Adams. 
No one understood his fel- 
low-citizens better. He 
was born in Boston in 
1722. He had attended 

narvara V^OUege. /\Iter Samuel Adams, the Leader of the 
finishing his college course, American Revolution in Massa- 

A 1 Til mi CHUSETTS 

Adams studied law. Then 

he worked as a merchant's helper. Later he became 

his father's partner in the brewing business. On his 




io6 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



father's death he inherited the brewery, but could not 
make a success of it. 

Adams in Town Politics. Adams served for nine 
years as a tax collector in Boston, but he was so lenient 
with the taxpayers that they would not pay promptly. 
He was the ruling spirit in political clubs and in local 
affairs. He attended town meetings regularly and was 
often chosen chairman. He wrote political articles for 
the Boston newspapers and was a deep student of 
books on government. Adams became a popular figure, 
and his friends included mechanics, merchants, and 
sailors, — -many of whom he knew by their first names. 
He was not an orator, but a manager of men. 

The Stamp Act Congress. When Adams heard of 
the British Stamp Act, he aroused the people of Boston 
to protest against it. This tax, he said, was only a 

beginning. " Why not tax 
our lands and everything 
we possess or make use 
of ^ " he asked at a public 
meeting. The townspeople, 
pleased with his speech, 
elected him to the Massa- 
chusetts legislature. He 
immediately induced it to pass a resolution calling on 
all the colonies to send delegates to a Stamp Act Con- 
gress in New York. Several colonies answered the call. 
The Congress drew up a protest against the stamp tax 
and drafted a declaration of the rights of the colonies. 




^«SHILlL!OJ(Br; 

Stamp Act Stamps 



THE SPIRIT OF AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE 107 

Other Oppressive Laws. The hated Stamp Act was 
repealed by the British government, but in a Httle 
while another tax was laid on glass, lead, paper, tea, 
and a few other commodities. These things were not 
produced in America, but were brought in ships from 
other countries, and especially from England. The 
taxes, then, would have to be paid before the ships 
could send the goods ashore, or the colonists would be 
forced to do without the goods. Somewhat later Par- 
liament favored the British East India Company and 
made it possible for it to sell tea at a lower rate than 
the Boston merchants could sell it. They were indig- 
nant at the unfair advantage given the India Company, 
and prepared to resist the sale ot the tea. 

The Massachusetts Circular. These and other meas- 
ures once more stirred Samuel Adams to action. For 
the Massachusetts legislature he wrote, in 1768, a 
" Circular Letter " to the other colonists, setting forth 
American rights: (i) First among them was the right 
to be taxed only by their own legislatures elected by 
the voters. (2) The Parliament of Great Britain 
could not " grant their property without their con- 
sent." It was impossible for the colonists to send 
representatives three thousand miles to London. 
(3) Therefore, they must have the right to tax them- 
selves. (4) Royal officers in the colonies should be 
paid only out of taxes the people themselves voted. 
The Americans were not " disloyal." They " re- 
spectfully " laid their rights before the King and 



i08 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



petitioned for relief. For this frank declaration, the 
royal governor ordered the members of the Massa- 
chusetts assembly to go home and stay there. 

Adams and the Boston Massacre. In 1770, some 
of the King's soldiers in Boston quarreled with the 
people on the streets and fired upon them, killing three 




Northern Colonies on the Eve of the Revolution 

and wounding several. Quick as a flash, Samuel 
Adams and his friends called a meeting in Faneuil Hall 
to protest against the presence of royal troops in the 
town. In the name of the people, Adams went straight 
to the royal governor and told him that the soldiers 
would have to go. The governor at first refused. 



THE SPIRIT OF AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE 109 

Then he consented to send one of the regiments away. 
" Both regiments," said Adams, " or none." It was 
dangerous business to talk this way to the King's high 
officer; but Adams won by his firmness. 

Adams and the Committees of Correspondence. 
Although Boston was the center of opposition to the 
British in New England, Adams stirred up the smaller 
towns throughout that region. He wrote hundreds of 
letters telling the friends of the American cause to form 
town committees. Each committee selected a secretary, 
who wrote to the neighboring towns and so kept the 
news going. Faded copies of the replies received by 
Adams from his " correspondents " are still in existence. 
One letter is signed in the rough handwriting of a fisher- 
man. Another is signed by a blacksmith who turned 
aside from his flaming forge to tell Adams how thi'ngs 
were going in his town. A supporter of the British 
saw in these committees of humble folk the germs of 
trouble for the King. " I saw the seed," he wrote, 
" when it was planted ; it was a grain of mustard. I 
have watched the plant until it has become a great 
tree." Samuel Adams planted the seed, watered it, and 
tended the growing plant. 

Adams and the "Boston Tea Party." In 1773 the 
cheap tea of the British East India Company arrived in 
the harbor of Boston. The whole town was agog and 
a meeting was held in the Old South Church. The 
speakers demanded that the owner of the tea ships 
take the vessels away. The governor would not permit 



no A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

this. Then Samuel Adams boldly told the crowd 
that talking in meetings would do nothing to save the 
country. That was a clear hint. In a few minutes an 
Indian whoop was heard in the street. A band of 
Boston men, disguised as " Mohawks," ^ rushed down 
to the wharf and tossed the tea overboard into the 
sea. 

This was a serious outbreak. Great Britain answered 
by closing the port of Boston and forbidding all further 
town meetings, 

Adams and the Continental Congress. As In 1765 
when the Stamp Act was passed, another assembly of 
delegates from the colonies was called in the new 
crisis. Massachusetts, again under the influence of 
Adams, took the lead in calling it. So it came about 
that in 1774 the first Continental Congress was as- 
sembled in Philadelphia. Samuel Adams and his 
cousin, John Adams, were among the men selected by 
Massachusetts to represent that colony. Unhappily 
Samuel was so poor that he had no " fine clothes " to 
wear. His neighbors knew his plight and bought him 
a complete outfit, not overlooking silver buckles for 
his shoes and a gold-headed cane. All the people had 
heard of him and at every large town on the way to 
Philadelphia he was cheered and honored at public 
banquets. 

^The Mohawks were a famous tribe of Indians that lived in central and north- 
ern New York. 



THE SPIRIT OF AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE III 



II. Patrick Henry, the Orator of the Revolution 

A Son of Old Virginia. While at Philadelphia, 
Samuel Adams met many of the first men of America. 
Among them was a delegate from Virginia, Patrick 
Henry, as famous in 
America to-day as 
Adams himself. Henry, 
like Adams, was not 
rich in this world's 
goods. He was born 
in Virginia in 1736, one 
among nine children. 
His early life was spent 
on a farm not far from 
Richmond. He at- 
tended the common 
school until he was 
ten years old, learning 
reading, writing, and 
arithmetic. The rest 
of his education he re- 
ceived from his father. 
By the age of fifteen 
he knew Latin, some 

Greek, and a great deal of history. He learned to play 
the violin and flute. He played, hunted, read, and 
was a dutiful son. 

When Henrv was fifteen vears old, he and his brother 




'aTRIi. K Ill-.XRY, THE Ll.ADF.R OF THE 

American Revolution in Virginia 



rt2 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

were set up in business in a country store. This ven- 
ture proved unfortunate. The Henry Brothers failed 
because, it is said, they were too generous in giving credit 
to their customers. Patrick married the daughter of 
a neighbor, who brought him some slaves and a few 
hundred acres of land. He was not very successful as 
a farmer. Neither did he prosper in an effort to com- 
bine farming with storekeeping. Then he tried a new 
line. He took up the study and practice of law. 

A Famous Case. In making his plea to the jury at 
a certain trial, in which he took the side of the taxpayers 
against the King, Henry took the ground that the 
King had no right to annul a law made by Virginia. 
In doing this, he declared, the King had become a ty- 
rant, and forfeited all rights to obedience. This was 
defiant talk. Some bystanders thought it treasonable 
to speak in such a way about the King. 

The taxpayers won their case. In a riotous outburst 
of joy, the people lifted Henry to their shoulders and 
carried him about the streets. By their action they 
declared, in effect. If not in so many words : " Virginia 
will govern herself, make her own laws, and lay her 
own taxes. She will not allow a king three thousand 
miles away to dictate to her." 

Henry and the Stamp Act. In the very year that 
England passed the Stamp Act, Patrick Henry entered 
the Virginia legislature. He soon made himself the 
leader of the sturdy farmers of the western frontier. 
Opposed to him were " the aristocrats," as the royalist 



THE SPIRIT OF AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE 



113 



planters on the seaboard were styled. He offered a 
set of resolutions against the stamp tax. Then fol- 
lowed one of the greatest debates in American history. 
Henry made a fiery speech. As he denounced the 
Stamp Act and George HI, friends of the King cried 
out: "Treason! treason!" With the help of the 
Scotch-Irish and Huguenot farmers from the inland 




Southern Colonies on the Eve of the Revolution 

counties he carried the resolutions. Patrick Henry was 
now the leading spirit of the Revolution in Virginia. 

Patrick Henry Calls upon Virginia to Take Up Arms. 
When the quarrel with England was renewed in 1774, 
Virginia naturally elected Patrick Henry to the first 
Continental Congress at Philadelphia. While he was 
there he became convinced that a break with England 



114 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



was sure to come. After his return home a convention 
was called to meet at Richmond and decide upon the 

future course of 
Virginia. Henry 
at once proposed 
resolutions in fa- 
vor of taking up 
arms in defense of 
American rights. 
This was a danger- 
ous step, and it 
was stoutly op- 
posed by able men. 
They warned him 
against hasty ac- 
tion. They ad- 
vised peaceful 
negotiations with 
Great Britain — 
petitions, argu- 
ments, and remon- 
strances against 
British policies in 
America. 

Henry's Rousing 

Oration (1775). 

Patrick Henry rose 

to his full height and delivered an oration that will 

never perish from American memory. He had, he 




The Middle Colonies on the Eve of the 
Revolution 



THE SPIRIT OF AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE 115 

said, but one lamp to guide him, the lamp of experi- 
ence. Judging the future by the past, he believed 
that no trust could be placed in the promises of the 
King's ministers. The American people had petitioned 
and been spurned. Now the time had come for action. 

With intense feeling Henry swept forward with his 
argument and plea while men sat breathless under his 
spell. Then he came to the end : " If we wish to be 
free . . . we must fight. . . . An appeal to arms and 
to the God of Hosts is all that is left to us. . . . There 
is no retreat but in submission and slavery ! Our 
chains are forged ! Their clanking may be heard on 
the plains of Boston ! The war is inevitable — and 
let it come ! I repeat, sir, let it come ! . . . The next 
gale that sweeps from the North will bring to our ears 
the clash of resounding arms ! Our brethren are already 
in the field ! Why stand we here idle ? What is it 
that gentlemen wish ? What would they have ? Is 
life so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the 
price of chains and slavery ? Forbid it, Almighty 
God ! I know not what course others may take ; but 
as for me, give me liberty, or give me death ! " The 
orator closed. The die was cast. Virginia prepared 
for the armed conflict. 

The Second Continental Congress. In the year 1775 
the second Continental Congress assembled in Phila- 
delphia. Henry was there with Thomas Jefferson. 
He was also among the first to urge a declaration of 
independence in 1776. When Virginia became a state. 



ii6 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



Henry was chosen first governor and served for four 
terms in succession. He lived through the great 
struggle and saw his country free and independent. 




The Tomb of Patrick Henry Which Is Marked by a Simple Marble Slab 

In 1799 he died, and his grave was marked by a plain 
marble slab, bearing this inscription : " His name is 
his best epitaph." 



III. Edmund Burke, the British Friend of America 

English Sympathy with Americans. By no means 
all King George's subjects in Great Britain favored 
the policy of taxing the colonists and interfering with 
their trade. The great William Pitt, who sent General 
Wolfe to conquer Canada, was opposed to the Stamp 
Act. So was an able orator, Edmund Burke, born 
and educated in Ireland. 



THE SPIRIT OF AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE 117 

Burke's Knowledge of American Affairs. Burke 
was accustomed to look on things with independent 
eyes. He was elected to Parliament in the year of 
the Stamp Act, 1765, at the age of thirty-six. Among 
his first speeches was a plea for the repeal of the law 
that had made so much trouble in America. He be- 
came acquainted with Benjamin Franklin, who was 
the agent of Pennsylvania in England nearly all the 
time from 1757 to 1775. Burke acted as the agent 
of New York in London, looking after the affairs of 
that colony. He was a close student besides. Accord- 
ingly he was unusually well informed about America. 

Burke on Taxation. When King George and Parlia- 
ment seemed bent upon raising money in America, 
Burke made a famous speech on American questions 
(1774). He urged the repeal of all taxes. He said 
that it would be much better to lose the money than 
to take it by methods that all true Englishmen felt to be 
unjust, — that is by taxing people without permitting 
them to be represented in the body that levies the taxes. 
He urged Parliament to retrace its steps to the older days 
when no taxes had been laid on the colonists. " Until 
you come back to that system," he exclaimed with true 
insight, " there will be no peace for England." 

Burke on Conciliation. The next year, 1775, Burke 
made a still more noted speech on friendly dealings with 
the colonies. He cited facts and figures on colonial life 
and trade, which showed that he understood his sub- 
ject. He gave six important reasons why conciliation 



Il8 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

was better than harsh measures : (i) The colonists 
were descendants of the EngHsh who had always been 
a Hberty-loving people. (2) They had their local 
assemblies, elected by the voters ; so they knew a great 
deal about managing their own affairs. (3) In the 
northern colonies, the spirit of religious freedom was 
strong and opposition to the King and bishops very 
marked. (4) The planters of the South were proud 
and independent and resented interference from Eng- 
land. (5) Education was widespread and the colo- 
nists had leaders, especially lawyers, who could speak 
and act for them. (6) The colonies were far across the 
sea and not easily curbed by the British government. 
Hence, he argued, " a fierce spirit of liberty has grown 
up." 

In Burke's opinion there were three things that 
England might do. She might try to change the 
spirit of the colonists, but in that she would fail. 
She might prosecute the colonists as criminals, but that, 
he thought, was not wise. The third and right thing 
to do, declared Burke, was to repeal the hated laws 
and bind the colonists to England by bonds of friend- 
ship and trade — the way of peace and conciliation. 
His plea fell on deaf ears. Parliament would not heed 
it. The King and his high advisers laughed at it. In 
a few years they learned to their sorrow that Burke was 
right. It was then too late to act on his advice. 



THE SPIRIT OF AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE 119 

Questions and Exercises 

What is meant by a tax ? What things that are done for you 
are paid for by taxes ? In what other ways is the money raised 
by taxation spent ? Why did the rulers of England think that 
the colonists in America should be taxed to pay some of the 
expenses of the war between England and France ? Why did the 
Americans dislike to pay such taxes ? Why did the English 
Government refuse to let the Americans trade freely with other 
countries ? What is meant by manufacturing ? Why did the 
Government discourage manufacturing in the colonies ? How 
would the people of your town or city feel if a far-off government 
in which they had no share laid taxes upon them without their 
consent ? How would they feel if such a government refused to 
let them trade freely or to engage in manufacturing ? 

. I. What is meant by a stamp tax ? Do you know of any stamp 
taxes that our Government now levies ? Are postage stamps 
a form of taxation ? Why or why not ? Locate Boston. What 
people had settled Boston ? How long had Boston been settled 
when the trouble about taxes began ? Why is it easy to lay taxes 
on goods shipped into a country ? Why did the people of Boston 
destroy the tea that came in the ships of the East India Company ? 
Give as many reasons as you can showing why Samuel Adams is 
remembered as one of the great American leaders. 

II. What people had settled in Virginia ? How long before 
the trouble over taxes .'' How did they differ from the settlers of 
Massachusetts ? When the tax trouble came, what group of 
Virginians was foremost in protesting against what they thought 
to be the injustice of the English Government? How did the 
position of Patrick Henry and his followers in Virginia differ from 
the positiofi of Samuel Adams and his followers in Massachusetts ? 
What is meant by an oration ^ Study the sentences from Patrick 
Henry's oration as given on page 115; what did he mean when 
he said, "Our chains are forged"? What, in his opinion, was 



I20 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

dearer even than life itself ? The name of Patrick Henry is one 
of the best remembered in the history of our country ; why ? 

III. What is the English Parliament? To what law-making 
body in our country is it similar ? If many people in England 
were opposed to taxing the colonists without their consent, how 
did it happen that the English government kept on levying the 
taxes ? What is meant by conciliation ? Why did Burke believe 
that the English government should try to conciliate the colonies 
instead of further angering them ? 

Suggestions for Reading 

Southworth's Builders of Our Country, Book II, pp. i-8 (Pat- 
rick Henry), pp. 9-23 (Samuel Adams) ; Guerber's Story of the 
Thirteen Colonies, pp. 214-228 (tax-troubles); Johonnot's Stories 
of Our Country, pp. 94-98 (Patrick Henry) ; E. A. Brooks's 
Stories of the Old Bay State, pp. 109-126 (James Otis, Samuel 
Adams, the Boston Massacre); To be read to the pupils: Hart's 
Source Readers in American History, No. 2, Camps and Firesides 
of the Revolution, pp. 153-169 (tax troubles, the Boston Tea 
Party) ; Eva March Tappan's England's Story, pp. 306-309 
(English attitude toward colonists). 

Problems for Further Study 

Find out the different ways in which money is now raised by 
taxation to pay the expenses of government (i) for your own city, 
town, or school district, (2) for your state, (3) for the United 
States. Why did the defeat of France in the French and Indian 
war help to bring about the independence of our country .'' In 
what way do your fathers and mothers help to make the laws of 
your state r Of the United States ? 



CHAPTER VII 

THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

The Problem Confronting the Colonies : How to Win 
Independence against Great Odds. " The next gale 
that sweeps from the North will bring to our ears the 
clash of resounding arms." Thus spoke Patrick Henry 
in his moving speech before the Virginia convention in 
the spring of 1775. His prophecy came true. In 
April, British regulars were sent from Boston to Con- 
cord to capture powder and provisions collected by the 
Americans. Paul Revere made his famous ride to 
warn the farmers on the way. The shock of a battle at 
Lexington and at Concord aroused the whole country- 
side. Then came the running light all the way back 
to Boston as the British retreated. The " clash of re- 
sounding arms " was indeed heard throughout America. 

The thirteen colonies were at war with a great em- 
pire. Though the American people were brave enough, 
they were not well trained in military affairs. Great 
work was before them. Armies had to be raised and 
led to battle. War vessels had to be built and com- 
manded by skillful captains. Such civil matters as 
raising money, making laws, and conducting the gov- 
ernment called for high ability. Relations had to be 



122 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



established with foreign countries to secure their 
friendship and help. This required that able ministers 

and diplomats be 
sent abroad. 

Could competent 
leaders in all these 
lines be found in 
such a new coun- 
try ^ They could. 
From every walk of 
life came warriors, 
statesmen, and dip- 
lomats. Some were 
already famous. 
Others had hitherto 
been unknown. 

I, The Great Mili- 
tary Leader 

Washington as 
Commander in 
Chief. In the spring 
of 1775, the Con- 

The Old North Church in Boston, Massa- ^. .1 /^ 

cHusETTs tinental^ Congress 

The night before the battle of Lexington lanterns, hung met again tO UUlte 
in this tower gave the signal to Paul Revere to ride || ^^ ColonicS iu 
into the country to warn the farmers that the British 

soldiers were coming. dcfcnscof American 

rights. Among the delegates from Virginia was the hero 
of Braddock's ill-fated battle, Washington, wearing the 




THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 123 

blue and buff uniform of a Virginia colonel. He learned 
that the men assembled in Philadelphia were, like him- 
self, in grim earnest. They were prepared to fight to 
the last ditch in defense of American principles. 

In June, John Adams rose upon the floor and said 
that the time had come to choose a head for the army. 
There was, he went on, but one man for the place. That 
man already commanded the confidence of America be- 
cause of his character, fortune, and great talents. He 
was George Washington. At the mention of his name 
Washington left the room. The next day he was elected 
Commander in Chief. On June 21 he left for Cam- 
bridge, Alassachusetts, to assume his perilous post. 

Washington Hears of Bunker Hill. While on the 
way, Washington met a courier bearing news from 
Boston. On June 17 the British had taken Bunker 
Hill after disastrous losses. " Did the militia fight ? ", 
Washington anxiously inquired. " They did," he was 
told. On hearing that, he exclaimed : " Then the lib- 
erties of our countr}^ are safe ! " On July 2 booming 
cannon announced the arrival of the illustrious Vir- 
ginian. The next day, in the presence of the multi- 
tude, he drew his sword under the Elm at Cambridge 
and took command of the army. One who saw him 
there wrote : " His Excellency was on horseback with 
several military gentlemen. It was not difficult to 
distinguish him from all others. He is tall and well 
proportioned and his personal appearance truly noble 
and majestic." 



124 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



Washington at Work. The new commander went 
to work with a will. He forced the British out of 
Boston and' freed the city in 1776. Then he went to 
New York to challenge the British. Here he met 

discouragements as 
trying as any man 
ever faced. His 
troops were raw and 
untrained. Their 
terms of service 
were short, and 
large numbers were 
continually leaving 
for home. In spite 
of his efforts he was 
forced off Long Is- 
land, driven north- 
ward to White 
Plains and across 
the Hudson, and 
pursued through 
New Jersey. 

On December 2 
he was at Princeton 
with the British pressing close behind. Only by the 
barest luck did his footsore and weary army reach the 
other side of the Delaware in safety. The British gen- 
eral thought that Washington was at the end of his 
resources and withdrew to New York, leaving strong 




The Famous Elm at Cambridge, Mass., Under 
Which Washington Drew His Sword and 
Took Command of the Continental Troops 



THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 125 

bodies of troops to watch the Continentals, as the 
American soldiers had come to be called. 

Washington at Trenton. In this dark hour, Washing- 
ton put new life into the American cause by a bold stroke 
at Trenton. On Christmas night (1776), he pushed his 
way across the icy waters of the Delaware. The next 
day he swept down upon the British commander, who 
was stationed at Trenton with a strong force of Hes- 
sians — German troops hired by King George to sub- 
due his subjects in America. One of Washington's 
officers hesitated and sent word that his guns were' 
wet. " Tell your general," said Washington, " to use 
the bayonet, for the town must be taken." It was 
taken, and with it a large number of prisoners. Wheel- 
ing then upon Princeton, he gave the British another 
heavy blow. The American cause was saved from 
immediate ruin. 

Seeing It Through. Washington's work was just 
begun. Before him lay many trials. The British 
marched on Philadelphia and he was unable to prevent 
them from taking it. He was beaten at Brandywine 
Creek, south of the city. Then came the frightful 
winter of 1777-78 at Valley Forge, when he and his poor 
soldiers nearly froze and starved to death. This terrible 
experience was followed by more fighting w^ithout def- 
inite result. 

To lack of success on the battle field was added 
the treason of one of Washington's trusted officers, 
Benedict Arnold. This soldier secretly planned to 



126 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



surrender West Point to the British, but the spy, 
Major Andre, who made the arrangement, was caught 
and executed. " Whom can we trust now ? " was the 




A Painting of Washington at Valley Forge 

The winter which he spent here has been called "the darkest hour in the War for 
Independence." 

cry that ran through the army. Washington bore the 
fearful aifair with his usual calm. 

That was not all that Washington had to endure. 
Some Pennsylvania troops mutinied and had to be re- 
strained with a strong hand. Generals were jealous 
of one another and quarreled over honors. Congress 
delayed and paltered with its work of supplying men, 
money, and provisions. Everything fell upon Wash- 
ington's shoulders until he was driven to exclaim 



THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 127 

bitterly : " The history of the war is a history of false 
hopes and temporary expedients," 

The Tide Turns. At this very time, however, the 
tide was turning. Indeed a number of events had 
pointed to the final triumph of the United States. In 
1777 the British general, Burgoyne, had attempted to 
cut off New England from the other colonies by taking 
an army from Canada to New York City by way of 
Lake Champlain, Lake George, and the Hudson River. 
But the Americans placed an army in his path which 
defeated him so badly at Saratoga that he was forced 
to surrender all his troops. 

The next year the French had joined the American 
cause and begun to send troops and supplies. In the 
South, Generals Morgan and Greene, by victories at 
Cowpens and Guilford in 1781, had forced the British 
General, Cornwallis, to give up the plan of conquering 
the Carolinas. Valuable aid had been received from 
foreign soldiers. A French officer, Lafayette, a German 
officer, Baron Steuben, and two young Poles, Kosciusko 
and Pulaski, had come over to help. 

The Last Battle. In 1781 the French admiral, 
De Grasse, had arrived and strong French forces under 
Count Rochambeau were ready for service. 

The British general, Cornwallis, having burnt and 
harried his way with heavy losses up through the 
Carolinas, was at Yorktown, Virginia. Here he was 
hemmed in by Washington and the French fleet 
and forced to surrender. This was the last blow to 



128 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

the hopes of George III. The colonies were lost to 
him forever. 

II. Heroes of the Navy 

Beginnings of the American Navy. In 1775 Con- 
gress at Philadelphia received the news that two 
British transports laden with supplies had sailed for 
America. This meant two things. The supplies would 
have to be cut off from the British army in the colonies ; 
and Americans could supplement their scanty stocks 
by capturing the goods of the enemy. Congress there- 
upon authorized the capture of any vessel bringing 
stores to the British army. Two months later it 
ordered the building of five ships of war. The Ameri- 
can navy, thus begun, was powerfully supplemented by 
the French navy after France joined the American 
cause. 

Early in January, 1776, Captain Esek Hopkins 
stepped on board his flagship, Alfred, one of eight 
American vessels collected in the river at Philadelphia. 
As he reached the deck a young lieutenant raised a 
yellow silk flag, bearing the device of a pine tree and 
a rattlesnake, with the motto, " Don't tread on me." 
The American navy was beginning its career. 
'•John Paul Jones. The young lieutenant was John 
Paul Jones, a Scotchman, then twenty-eight years old. 
As soon as he was old enough to help with boats, 
he had begun a life on the water. At the age of twelve 
he was as hardy and strong as most boys of sixteen^ 



THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 



129 



and he begged his father to let him go into regular 
service on the high seas. At the age of seventeen he 
was second mate on a ship trading with America, 
In 1773, after many experiences on the sea, Jones 
settled in Virginia. 
There he witnessed 
stirring events. He 
listened to the elo- 
quence of Patrick 
Henry and the ar- 
guments of Thomas 
Jefferson. He made 
up his mind to join 
heart and soul in 
theAmerican cause. 
His Exploits. 
Jones entered the 
service of the navy 
as a first lieutenant. 
The next year he 
was in command of 

a new irigate 01 niS ^j^ Imaginary Sketch of John Paul Jones 
own the RcinPCT Standing on the Deck of His Ship in the 

' 1-1 Midst of Battle 

With this ship he 

cruised in the Irish Sea and captured the Drake^ a 
British sloop of war. " The moral effect of this," said 
he, " was very great, as it taught the English that 
the fancied security of their coasts was a myth. . . . 
It doubled or more the rates of insurance, which 




13© A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

in the long run proved the most grievous damage 
of all." 

In 1778, when France entered the war against Eng- 
land, Jones was put in command of a French vessel, the 
Bonhomme Richard. It was in this ship that he fought 
a famous battle with the British vessel, the Serapis. 
After a desperate fight the English commander was 
forced to surrender, but Jones' ship was battered to 
pieces and went down shortly after the crew was taken 
off. In his journal Jones described the last scene : 
" No one was now left aboard the Richard but our dead. 
To them I gave the good old ship for their coffin and 
in her they found a sublime sepulchre. She rolled 
heavily in the long swell. ... As she plunged down 
by the head . . . the very last vestige mortal eyes 
ever saw of the Bonhomme Richard was the defiant 
waving of her unconquered and unstricken fiag." 
Jones afterward entered the French navy and finally 
the Russian service. He died in Paris in 1792. 

John Barry. Services no less important were ren- 
dered to the American cause in naval battles by an 
Irishman, John Barry. He had come to Philadelphia 
about 1760 when a youth of fifteen. Like Jones, he 
went early to sea. When the Revolution broke out, 
he was the captain of a merchant vessel. It was 
his ship, the Black Prince, that was made over into 
the American war vessel, Alfred, the flagship on 
which John Paul Jones raised the sign " Don't tread 
on me." 



THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION I31 

In 1776 Captain Barry was made commander of the 
Lexington, and in a few weeks showed his fighting 
mettle by capturing the Edward, an armed tender of 
the English warship, Liverpool. In 1778 Barry was in 
command of the Raleigh. In an encounter with two 
British frigates, he was beaten. Though he lost his 
ship, he managed to escape with his men. Barry then 
tried his fortunes in the army, but in 1781 was back 
again on the sea, in command of the Alliance. He 
fought two British brigs and captured them both. It 
fell to his lot to fight in the last naval action of the 
war, while on a cruise to Havana. After the Revolution 
he settled once more in Philadelphia, where he died 
in 1803. Grateful citizens of that city have built a 
monument to his memory. 

III. The Author of the Declaration of 
Independence 

Civil Leaders. While the soldiers were fighting in 
the field and the sailors on the sea, capable men were 
at work carrying on the civil government. Not even 
their names can all be recorded here. They include 
Christopher Gadsden, an ardent patriot of South 
Carolina ; Robert Morris, the Pennsylvania financier 
who labored night and day to raise money for supplies 
and troops ; Roger Sherman, the stanch advocate of 
independence from Connecticut ; and General Philip 
Schuyler, of New York, in command of the forces in 
the North and delegate to the Continental Congress. 



132 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



Thomas Jefferson. High in this roll of great mea 
must be placed the name of Thomas Jefferson, of Vir- 
ginia, the author of the Declaration of Independence. 
By education and spirit, he was well fitted for public life. 

Jefferson's father was not one of the great planters 
of that colony, but a frontier farmer in the foot- 




WlLLIAM AND MaRY CoLLEGE, WhICH WAS FoUNDED AT WlLLIAMSBURG, Va., 

IN 1693 

hills of the Blue Ridge. His mother, however, came 
from one of " the first families " of the colony. 
Thomas was born in 1743. His father was fairly 
successful and owned a large farm with many slaves. 
Though he had not had much education himself, he 
wanted Thomas to have the best Virginia could give 



THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 133 

him. He loved to gather his family around him and 
read aloud from the English classical writers, especially 
Shakespeare and Addison. 

At the age of seventeen, young Thomas entered 
William and Mary College at Williamsburg, next to 
Harvard the oldest college in the colonies. After 
graduation he studied law, but he did not devote him- 
self to its practice. His father was dead and the bur- 
den of managing the estate fell upon his shoulders. 

In the Service of the Revolution. While Jefferson 
was still a student of law, he heard Patrick Henry 
deliver his impassioned speech against the stamp tax. 
He was delighted with the orator and said that he 
agreed with him " on all points." Some ten years 
later, when the storm broke over the tea riot in 
Boston, Jefferson was old enough to take part in public 
affairs. In 1774 he wrote a pamphlet in which he set 
forth the " Rights of British America " in strong and 
vigorous language. This marked him for leadership in 
Virginia. 

The next year he became a member of the Vir- 
ginia convention in which Patrick Henry called upon 
his hearers to choose between liberty and death. 
Jefferson's views were well known. The Virginians 
had faith in his ability and made him one of the dele- 
gates to the second Continental Congress at Philadel- 
phia. He arrived just in time to see George Wash- 
ington set out for New England to take command of 
the army of the United States. 



134 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

The Declaration of Independence. Jefferson was 
neither an orator nor a debater. He could, however, 
write with skill and force. For that reason he was made 
a member of the committee appointed by Congress 
to draw up the Declaration of Independence. The 
work of drafting that document was nearly all his. 





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1 1 


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.iU«. .,.■■,■:•..; 



The Opening Words of the Declaration of Independence from 
Jefferson's Own Draft 

The other members of the committee made a few sug- 
gestions, but not many. When the draft was read to 
Congress, there was a sharp debate and some changes 
were made. Nevertheless the language and thought 
of the Declaration of Independence are, in the main, 
the language and thought of Thomas Jefferson. In 
it he stated a few grand and simple principles : 

All men are created equal. 

Their Creator has endowed them with certain rights, among 
which are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. 

Governments derive their just powers from the consent of the 
governed. 



THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 



135 









?!-»S> 






■u,. 



ji^- 



t)^ j»i/ 






3 ill* 




> 

^ 



A Reproduction of a Page from the Records of the Continental 
Congress Showing the Resolution Declaring Independence 

It was agreed to on July 2, 1776, two days before the Declaration of Independence was 

formally proclaimed. 



136 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

He enumerated the evils from which the colonists 
had suffered at the hands of Great Britain. On 
account of these evils the Americans, he said, were 
justified in throwing off the rule of the British King and 
in taking their place among the independent nations 
of the earth. 

On July 4, 1776, Congress adopted the Declaration. 
The president of Congress, John Hancock, of Massa- 
chusetts, signed it, in bold letters " which George HI 
could read without his spectacles." It was then pub- 
lished to the world. 

IV. An American Hero Abroad — Benjamin 
Franklin 

The Youth of Franklin. — When independence was 
declared there were two necessary things to be done 
abroad. The first was to secure from friendly countries 
the recognition of the United States as one of the 
independent nations of the earth. The second was 
to obtain help — money, perhaps an alliance with some 
foreign power, and soldiers. The good will of France 
was especially desired. So Congress, in the autumn of 
1776, selected one of the most distinguished citizens of 
our country, Benjamin Franklin, a man of threescore 
years and ten, to go as minister to Paris. 

What wonderful experiences this old man had 
passed through ! In 1716, at the age of ten, he was at 
work with his father making soap and candles. He 
was next apprenticed as a printer to his brother, who 



THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 137 

was high-tempered and beat him when angry. Be- 
fore he was seventeen Benjamin fled from his home in 
Boston to find employment as a printer in Philadelphia, 




Benjamin Franklin 



138 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

His Education. Though his school days were short, 
he educated himself, proving that any one with the 
mind and the will can overcome heavy obstacles. First 
of all Franklin wanted to write pure and simple Eng- 
lish. He learned by studying the best English books, 
particularly the writings of the famous essayist, Ad- 
dison. He copied page after page and then rewrote 
each one from memory. In time he was a master 
of our tongue. 

At the age of twenty-six he took up the study of 
foreign languages. He worked by himself until he 
attained a reading knowledge of French, Italian, and 
Spanish. Then he began the serious study of Latin, 
one year of Vv^hich he had taken in school. He used a 
copy of the New Testament written in Latin and 
applied himself until he could read it easily. 

Franklin's Many Activities. At length Franklin went 
into the printing business on his own account, and 
started an almanac under the name of " Richard 
Saunders." This pamphlet he issued for about 
twenty-five years. It was known throughout America 
as " Poor Richard's Almanac." In addition to In- 
formation about the weather and the seasons. It con- 
tained many droll stories and witty sayings. All 
through It were sprinkled wise proverbs, such as : 
" God helps them that help themselves " ; " He that 
by the plow would thrive, himself must either hold 
or drive." Every year Franklin sold ten thousand 
copies of his Almanac. 



THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 139 



M.T.CICERO's 

CATO MAJOR, 

OR HIS 

DISCOURSE 

OLD-AGE: 

With Explanatory NOTES 



F HILADELPHIA 

Printed and Sold by B. FRANKLIN, 
MDCCXLIV. 



The Title-page of a Book Which was Published by Benjamin Franklin 



14© A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

Besides the Almanac, Franklin published a news- 
paper. Public libraries were unknown in those days 
and books were costly ; Franklin knew how important 
it is for people to read good books, so he founded a 
circulating library from which even poor people could 
rent books for a small sum. He helped to establish the 
Academy of Pennsylvania, which has since become the 
University of Pennsylvania. He discovered by sending 
up a kite during a thunder storm that lightning and 
electricity were the same. This won fame for him 
abroad as a great man of science. He aided in improv- 
ing the city government of Philadelphia by helping to 
introduce street paving and cleaning, a regular com- 
pany to fight fires, and a better police force. 

Franklin in England. In 1757 Franklin was sent 
to London as the agent of Pennsylvania ; there he re- 
mained for five years. In 1765 he was sent back to Eng- 
land and for ten years he was really the spokesman of 
America in London. It was then that he came to know 
mam^ famous Englishmen, among them Edmund Burke. 

During the Stamp Act quarrel, Franklin was called 
before the House of Commons to tell English law- 
makers how the Americans felt about the taxes. He 
was asked whether the colonists would submit to the 
stamp tax if some of the worst parts of the law were 
repealed. To this he replied simply, " No, they will 
never submit to it." 

In Congress. When Franklin arrived home in the 
spring of 1775 he was elected a delegate for Penn- 



THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 141 

sylvania to the Continental Congress then in session 
at Philadelphia. In that Congress he did important 
work. He brought forward a plan tor union among all 
the colonies — a plan which finally took the form of 
the Articles of Confederation. He was on the com- 
mittee charged with the duty of drafting the Declara- 
tion of Independence. He signed that great docu- 
ment, saying, " We must indeed all hang together, 
or assuredly we shall hang separately." 

American Envoy to France. It was on account of his 
talents and experience that Franklin was sent on the 
mission to Paris. Already an American agent in France 
had secured from the King secret aid for the Ameri- 
can Revolution. Franklin wanted more than secret 
aid. He desired an alliance. He wanted France 
openly to join in the war against Great Britain, That 
was dangerous business for the French King. France 
had been badly beaten only a little more than ten 
years before and shrank from another contest with 
England. 

For many months Franklin could make no head- 
way with his plans. Then, very suddenly, the help 
came. One night early in December, 1777, a carriage 
dashed into Franklin's yard in Paris. A young Ameri- 
can sprang out all flushed with excitement. He was 
the bearer of good news from America — that the 
English general, Burgoyne, and his entire army had 
surrendered to the Americans at Saratoga. Bur- 
goyne, you will remember, had been sent down from 



142 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

Canada to split the colonies into two parts by a drive 
through New York, but had failed and had been cap- 
tured by American forces. 

The French Alliance (1778). Franklin was over- 
come with joy. Soon the glad tidings spread all over 
Paris. Bells were rung and bonfires built. A French 
minister, on hearing the news, rushed off to the King 
in such a hurry that he upset his carriage and dislo- 
cated his arm. Franklin got the help he sought. 
He obtained a treaty of alliance with France and 
brought that country into war on the American side. 

Franklin remained in Paris, borrowing money and col- 
lecting supplies for the American army. This " begging 
and borrowing " was distasteful to him, but he went 
through with it to the bitter end — until the war was won. 

The Peace Treaty. Franklin's last work in Europe 
was to help in negotiating the treaty of peace with 
England, signed in 1783. By clever arts he won for 
his country all the territory" below the Great Lakes 
west to the Mississippi River, except Florida and New 
Orleans. A patriot soldier, George Rogers Clark, by 
an expedition to the West in 1778-79, had captured 
Kaskaskia in Illinois and Vincennes in Indiana. 
Franklin clinched the hold of the Americans on the 
Northwest Territory. In the summer of 1785 he left 
France amid the tears and cheers of thousands. On 
September 12 he saw his "dear Philadelphia" once more. 

The Constitutional Convention (1787). His work 
was not yet done. At the age of eighty-one he was 



THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 1 43 

chosen by Pennsylvania to serve as a delegate in the 
national convention at Philadelphia. There he helped 
to draft the Constitution of the United States. He 
lived to see General Washington inaugurated first 
President of the new Union. In the spring of 1790 
Franklin died in the city of Philadelphia, where, start- 
ing as a poor and unknown boy, he had made his way 
up to riches and lasting fame. 

Washington's Character. When full tribute is paid 
to the other heroes of the time, all must agree that 
it was Washington who made the Revolution a success. 
He was unselfish. He did not take a penny for his 
long years of service as commander in chief, thus 
setting a noble example to those about him. He was 
brave. He did not stay safely far behind the lines, 
but too often exposed himself at the front with his men. 
He was generous. When others were quarreling about 
honors he bade them think only of their countr}^ and 
its cause. He was industrious. He did more than 
plan and wage battles. He wrote hundreds of letters to 
men all over the country stirring them to bend every 
energy in the American cause. He was constantly 
urging Congress to take action to secure soldiers and 
supplies. When men did wrong, he was stern, but 
quick to forgive. For all these reasons, he was beloved 
by the soldiers. They had many grievances, but he 
urged them to take no rash steps against the Con- 
gress for its delays in paying them. 



144 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 




George Washington 
Painting by THIbert Stuart, an American artist (1755-1828) 



THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 



145 



Farewell to the Officers. It. was a sad day for them 
all when on December 4, 1783, Washington bade his 
officers farewell at Fraunces' Tavern in New York. 
Tears came to his 
eyes and his voice 
faltered as he drank 
a toast to them. 
When the hour of 
parting arrived, he 
said simply, " I 
cannot come to each 
of you and take my 
leave, but shall be 
obliged if you will 
come and take me 
by the hand." 
After he had shaken 
hands with them, 
they walked in si- 
lence to Whitehall 
Ferry, where he 
gave them the last salute. On his way south, he stopped 
at Annapolis, where Congress was in session. In a brief 
and simple speech, he surrendered his commission as 
commander in chief. He then left for Mt. Vernon, a 
private citizen of the new republic. 




© Brown Bros. 
Fraunces' Tavern in New York City as it 
Appears To-day 

In this building General Washington bade his officers 
farewell at the close of the Revolutionary War. 



146 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

Questions and Exercises 

How did it happen that the first fighting of the Revolution took 
place near Boston ? What is meant by " British regulars " ? What 
kind of men do you think made up the American forces that fought 
the battles of Lexington, Concord, and Bunker Hill ? Trace on 
a map the route that Paul Revere took. 

I. What experiences had George Washington had to fit him for 
commanding the American armies ? He was appointed to this 
post by the Continental Congress ; where did the men come from 
who made up this Congress ? Why would the people be likely to 
support them in what they did ? Trace on the map Washington's 
movements from the time the British troops left Boston to the time 
when he went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. Locate 
Long Island, White Plains, Princeton, Trenton, Brandywine 
Creek. Trace the route of Burgoyne's expedition. Why was the 
defeat of Burgoyne so important for the Americans ? Locate 
Saratoga. Locate Valley Forge. Why is Valley Forge so well 
remembered in our history ^ Find West Point on the map. 
What event of the Revolution is connected with West Point .'* 
If you were to visit West Point to-day what would you find there .'* 
Locate Cowpens, Guilford, Yorktown. 

II. What is a navy.'' Why did the Americans need a navy.'' 
How could they have shortened the war if they had been able to 
build a very strong navy ? The principal naval battles of the war 
were fought far from American shores ; find on the map the places 
where they were fought; how did it happen that the American 
ships were so far from home ^ 

III. Thomas Jefferson has a place among the very greatest 
men in American history; why .^ When was the Declaration of 
Independence signed ? How long was this after the war had 
actually begun ^ Why did the Americans delay so long after the 
fighting started before they declared themselves free from Eng- 
lish rule .'' 



THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 147 

IV. What did Benjamin Franklin mean when, on signing the 
Declaration of Independence, he said, "We must indeed all hang 
together or assuredly we shall hang separately"? How old was 
Franklin when he was sent by the Americans to France to secure 
help for them against the English ? Why was he a good man to 
send on a mission of this sort ? What is meant by an alliance 
between two nations ? Why should the news of the American 
victory at Saratoga have influenced the French King in deciding 
to help the Americans ? What is meant by a treaty of peace ? 
England by the treaty that ended the Revolution acknowledged 
the independence of the original thirteen states ; name these states. 
The English also admitted that the new nation should own all 
the land that England had formerly held lying between the Appa- 
lachian Mountains and the Mississippi River south of the Great 
Lakes ; what right did the Americans have to claim that this land 
had been conquered by them during the Revolution .'' 

Suggestions for Reading 

Southworth's Builders of Our Country, Book I, pp. 208-225 
(Benjamin Franklin), Book II, pp. 44-62 (Washington in the 
Revolution), pp. 63-74 (Schuyler and Burgoyne's invasion), 
pp. 75-83 (Nathanael Greene), pp. 84-92 (John Paul Jones), 
PP- 93^96 (Lafayette), pp. 109-111 (Jefferson and the Declaration 
of Independence) ; Johonnot's Stories of Our Country, pp. 91-94 
(Washington in early Revolution), pp. 98-107 (Israel Putnam), 
pp. 1 15-122 (John Paul Jones), pp. 126-130 (Marion), pp. 131-135, 
140-145, 170-177 (Washington at Trenton, Valley Forge, and 
Yorktown), pp. 135-140 (Ethan Allen), pp. 146-150 (Burgoyne's 
invasion), pp. 155-160 (Arnold); Guerber's Story of the Thirteen 
Colonies, pp. 228-245 (events around Boston), pp. 248-253 (the 
Declaration of Independence), pp. 258-262 (Trenton), pp. 262-271 
(Burgoyne's invasion), pp. 271-275 (Valley Forge), pp. 293-297 
(John Paul Jones), pp. 304-312 (Arnold), pp. 315-326 (Yorktown 



148 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

and peace); Brooks's Stories of the Old Bay State, pp. 127-156; 
Dickson's Pioneers and Patriots in Early American History (de- 
voted entirely to the Revolutionary heroes) ; L. Frank Tooker's 
John Paul Jones, E. L. Dudley's Benjamin Franklin, and Martha 
Foote Crow's Lafayette in True Stories of Great Americans ; 
Jean Christie Root's Nathan Hale; C. C. Coffin's Boys of 
Seventy-six ; Hart's Source Readers in American History, No. 2, 
Camps and Firesides of the Revolution, pp. 257-266 (events 
around Boston), pp. 283-285 (Stony Point), pp. 285-289 (John 
Paul Jones), pp. 244-252 (Washington as commander). 

Problems for Further Study 

Make a list of all of the American patriots mentioned in 
this chapter, placing first the name of the man who in your 
judgment did most for his country, placing next the one 
whom you believe to rank second in this respect, and so on 
through the list. Be ready to give reasons for arranging the 
names as you do. How many years have passed since the Dec- 
laration of Independence? How many years passed between 
the first English settlement at Jamestown and the Declaration of 
Independence ? When our country sent soldiers to help France 
fight Germany in 1917 and 1918, Americans said that we were 
repaying an old debt to France; what did they mean by this ? 



CHAPTER VIII 
THE BEGINNINGS OF A NEW GOVERNMENT 

The Problem : Union or Quarreling States? Wash- 
ington was glad to lay aside the sword in 1783 and 
retire to his home at Mt. Vernon to enjoy a long 
needed and well-earned rest. Nevertheless his heart 
was still heavy. America was independent. A union 
had been formed under the Articles of Confederation 
adopted in 1781, but the states were quarreling among 
themselves. Their angry disputes made Washington 
anxious about the future of his country. 

Were the quarrelsome states soon to be at war with 
one another ? Were they to break up into two or 
more sections ^ Were the commercial states of the 
North and the planting states of the South to be 
united against each other ? What was to be done with 
the Western lands over which some states were disput- 
ing so bitterly ^ How were the bonds sold to meet the 
expenses of the Revolution to be paid ^ Was it right 
for New York to lay a tax on goods coming in from 
Connecticut ? How were American merchants and 
manufacturers to be protected against the compe- 
tition of English manufactures ^ In short, could the 
Union under the Articles of Confederation last or would 

149 



ISO 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



it break up ? That was the vital problem which 
Washington faced. He wrote letters to his friends 
about it. He urged the Americans to stand together 
and to make their Union stronger. Could they make 
it stronger ? 

I. The New Constitution 

Alexander Hamilton and His Answer. Washing- 
ton's anxiety was shared by many men. Among 

those equally con- 
cerned about the fate 
of the Union was one 
of his former officers, 
Alexander Hamilton,, 
a brilliant and dashing 
soldier. He had left 
King's College (now 
Columbia University) 
to join " the rebels " 
at the age of nineteen, 
first as an artillery 
officer and then as 
Washington's aide. 
Though he was born 
in the West Indies, 
Hamilton's loyalty to 
America was not exceeded by that of any other leader. 
Hamilton at Annapolis. This American by adop- 
tion proved to be one of the most forceful men in the 

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Alexander Hamilton, One of the Leaders 
IN THE Formation of the Constitution of 
THE United States and First Secretary 
of the Treasury under Washington 



THE BEGINNINGS OF A NEW GOVERNMENT 151 

new nation. He was among the first to advocate a 
stronger union. He early came to two main con- 
clusions. First, the United States ought to have a 
new constitution in place of the Articles of Confedera- 
tion. Secondly, a national convention ought to be 
summoned to draft the constitution. 

Fortunately for Hamilton's plans, it happened that 
in 1786 a convention of delegates from some of the 
states met at Annapolis to consider matters of trade 
and commerce among the states. James Madison, of 
Virginia, was one of the leaders in bringing about this 
convention. 

Hamilton appeared at Annapolis as a delegate 
from New York. He soon saw that the conference 
could not do much because so few delegates were 
present. However, he persuaded them to adopt a 
resolution calling on Congress to summon a national 
convention. Congress yielded, to the request. The 
states chose delegates. In the spring of 1787 the na- 
tional convention met in Philadelphia to " revise the 
Articles of Confederation." Adany of the greatest 
men in America were delegates. Washington was 
chosen chairman. 

Hamilton's Plan for a Strong Government. Hamil- 
ton did not have much confidence in popular elec- 
tions. He thought the people were fitful and change- 
able in their opinions. He proposed, therefore, that 
there should be a president elected for a life term, 
unless removed for misconduct. Since there had to be 



152 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

a body to make laws, he planned a Congress of two 
houses — -a senate and an assembly. He argued that 
there should be a senate to consist of persons elected 
to serve during good behavior ; that is, for life, unless 
removed. He suggested that there should be an as- 
sembly of delegates chosen for a term of three years. 
He proposed to give Congress large powers over all 
national affairs. For his " high-toned " ideas, Hamil- 
ton was accused of being at heart a man who believed 
in the rule of kings. 

Other Plans before the Convention. Other plans 
were laid before the convention. Madison prepared 
one which was presented as the Virginia plan. Pater- 
son, of New Jersey, presented another. The debates 
over these plans were long and spirited. More than 
once it seemed that the convention would break up 
without accomplishing anything. Hamilton grew dis- 
gusted and went home for a while. Benjamin Franklin 
suggested that the delegates join in prayer for divine 
help. 

All moderate men insisted on seeing the work through 
to a finish. They urged the hot-heads to make com- 
promises. By dint of hard labor the convention in 
September was able to announce an agreement. The 
delegates had not revised the Articles of Confederation. 
They had drafted a new Constitution which included 
parts of all the plans presented to the convention. 
They asked each state to elect delegates to a state 
convention to ratify or approve their new plan. 



THE BEGINNINGS OF A NEW GOVERNMENT 153 



The New Constitution. The Constitution of the 
United States, thus prepared at Philadelphia in 1787, 
provided for : 

1. A Congress to make laws. This Congress was to 
be made up of two houses : a Senate of two members 
from each state, and a House of Representatives. The 
members of the House were to be apportioned among 
the states mainly according to population. 

2. A President to enforce the laws. This chief of- 
ficer of the government was to be elected for a term of 
four years. 

3. A Supreme Court and other courts to be created 
by Congress. All judges were to be appointed by the 
President with the consent of the Senate, and hold 
office during good behavior. 

Hamilton and the Ratification of the Constitution. 
There had been much trouble in drafting the Con- 
stitution. It rep- 
resented the best 
thought of thirt}' 
or forty able men. 
It took still harder 
work to Induce the 
states to approve It. 
Washington spent 
days and nights 
writing letters to his friends all over the country, urging 
them to support the Constitution. Hamilton labored 
zealously in New York, where there was much opposi- 



The Ninth PILLAR erected I 

Th« Ratification of the Convrnlionj of nine Stales, (hall befuffiticnt forihe eltabUK. 

ment of this ConllituUon, between the Sutcs lo ratifying the fame." Art \ii. 

INCIPIENT MAGNI PROCEDEUE MENSES. 




From a cartoon oi the time showing that nine states 
had ratified the Constitution, that Virginia was on the 
way, and that New York was to be drawn into the new 
union 



154 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



tion to the new plan. He led the debates in the New 
York state convention and had the satisfaction of se- 
curing a favorable vote at last. In Virginia, Madison 
took the lead. After about a year of vigorous efforts, 
the supporters of the new Constitution had won eleven 
states. The new government was set up in 1789 with 
North Carolina and Rhode Island " still out in the cold." 

II. The New Government of the United States 

Washington, the First President. Who shall be 
our first President ? There was no doubt about the 

answer. Washing- 
ton's name was on 
every tongue. He 
was looked upon 
as " the savior of 
our country." 
Hamilton wrote 
him long letters 
telling him that 
his help was still 
needed. Washing- 
ton wanted peace 
at his beautiful 
home on the Po- 



'^ New- York, April a 4..' 

Yeflerday afternoon, about 3 o'CIock, ar- 
rived in this City> amid the acclamations of 
a great body of Citizens, His Excellency 
the President of the United States. — 
The Particulars will be given in to-morrow's 
paper. 

On the evening Ms Excellency takes his feat 
at the head of the government of the United 
States, there will be the mofl brilliant exhibi- 
tion of FIRE WORKS ever exhibited in this 
city, now preparing, under the furperintendance 
of Col. Bauman, commander of the city regi- 
ment of artillery. 

A reproduction of an extract from a New York news- 
paper, dated April 24, 1789, announcing the arrival of 
Washington in the city for his inauguration as Presi- 
dent 

tomac ; but he had 
to accept the call. In the spring of 1789 he made his 
way northward again. What thoughts must have 



THE BEGINNINGS OF A NEW GOVERNMENT 155 

passed through his mind as he made this journey once 
more! 

At every town he found a triumphal arch and the 
people all dressed in their best clothes to greet him. 
Flowers were strewn in his path. Little boys and 
girls crowded the wayside to catch a glimpse of the 
great general now entering on a new work for his 
country. When he came to New York the entire city 
was given over to rejoicing. Cannon were fired and 
bells were rung. On April 30, dressed plainly in 
brown, he took the oath of "office as first President of 
the United States. " Long live George Washington ! " 
rang out upon the air as he kissed the Bible. The cry 
was taken up and ran quickly through the streets. 
The Union had been saved. After a while Rhode 
Island and North Carolina accepted the Constitution. 
That celebrated document, with later changes called 
amendments, remains still the American plan of gov- 
ernment. 

Hamilton as Secretary of the Treasury. No one 
in New York was happier on that day than Wash- 
ington's former aide and companion-in-arms, Alex- 
ander Hamilton. Though a young man of thirty-two, 
he was chosen first Secretary of the Treasury and soon 
prepared his plans for the new government. He put 
forward four definite recommendations : 

First, that the bonds sold to meet the Revolutionary 
debt should all be paid in full. 

Secondly, that there should be a United States bank, 



156 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



with branches in each large city, to enable men to 
transact business easily in all parts of the country. 




Dressed in a plain brown suit, George Washington took the oath of office as first President 
of the United States on April 30, 1789. 



Thirdly, that a tax called a tariff should be laid on 
goods coming into the United States from foreign 



THE BEGINNINGS OF A NEW GOVERNMENT 157 

countries. This was to protect American manufac- 
turers against European competitors. 

Fourthly, that there should be a strong army and navy. 

Hamilton and Jefferson Clash. All Hamilton's 
plans were approved by President Washington. Some 




Federal Hall, in New York, as It Appeared in 1789 
It was from the balcony of this building Washington took the oath of office. 

of them, however, were heartily disliked by Jeffer- 
son, who was a member of the cabinet as Secretary of 
State. In fact the two men were opposed in sympa- 
thies and ideas. Hamilton was for a strong national 
government and wanted America to become a manu- 
facturing nation. Jefferson feared a strong federal 
government. He trusted the states more. He dis- 
liked manufacturing, moreover, and wished to keep 
America a nation of farmers. Hamilton had misgiv- 



158 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

ings about government by the people. Jefferson de- 
clared that he had faith in the people. 

Day after day, the two men disputed over their 
views. Washington tried in vain to make peace be- 
tween them. Finally he had to let Jefferson give up 
his office. In a little while Hamilton resigned also. 
Jefferson soon had many followers who shared his 
ideas. They formed themselves into a political party 
later known as the Republicans. Hamilton became 
the leader of another party known as the Federalists. 
The country, like these two men, was divided in 
opinion about the policies of the government. 

Washington Retires to Private Life. At the end of 
his second term Washington was tired of office. The 

wrangling of party 

_ leaders had wearied his 

?^^.^^^^^^.;^^^ soul. Though urged to 

/ ^-^ serve a third term, he 

Washington's Signature to the would UOt listen tO the 

Farewell Address 1 ^t 1 i* 1 

proposal. He delivered 
to his countrymen a Farewell Address and at the end 
of his second term he retired to his home at Mt. Vernon. 
Two years later, in 1799, he died. Never was a man 
more- generally mourned in America. North and South 
joined in paying tribute to his leadership. Federalists 
and Republicans laid aside their disputes long enough 
to do honor to his memory. 

John Adams as Second President. The next Presi- 
dent was John Adams of Massachusetts. He had 





THE BEGINNINGS OF A NEW GOVERNMENT 159 

rendered many great services to his country at home 
and abroad. Like Hamilton he feared too much " gov- 
ernment by the people," and was not very popular on 
that account. Moreover, he approved two very un- 
popular laws passed by Congress. One of them was 
the Alien Act, empowering the President to expel a 
foreigner who did not behave properly in America. 
Another was the Sedition Act which ordered the im- 
prisonment of people who criticized the government. 

The Federalists Frightened by Revolution in France. 
At the time these laws were passed, a revolution was 
going on in France. The King had been executed, and 
a long period of disorder opened. There were many 
Americans who sympathized with the French revolu- 
tionists. These Americans belonged to the Jeffersonian 
party and were naturally opposed to the Adams admin- 
istration. Their opposition frightened Adams and the 
Federalists, who spoke as if uprisings in the United 
States wxre to be seriously feared. 

Jefferson Attacks the Alien and Sedition Acts. 
Jefferson declared, without any reserve, that he was a 
friend of France. He opposed the imprisonment of 
men for criticizing the government of the United 
States. He drafted a set of resolutions protesting 
against the Alien and Sedition Laws. These reso- 
lutions were adopted by the legislature of Kentucky. 
They declared that the objectionable laws violated 
the Constitution of the United States, were null and 
void, and would not be obeyed by the people of Ken- 



l6o A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

tucky. This was the doctrine of " nuUiiication " of 
which the country was to hear a great deal during the 
next half century. 

Jefferson also accused Hamilton and Adams of 
favoring monarchy. He denounced them both as the 
enemies of liberty in America and called upon his 
countrymen to turn the Federalists out of office. 
The people approved Jefferson's ideas and elected him 
President of the United States in 1800. 

Jefferson and Adams. John Adams thought that 
Jefferson had been unfair to him and for a long time 
the two men were bitter enemies. In their last years, 
however, they forgot their quarrels, forgave each other, 
and exchanged many friendly letters. By a strange 
coincidence, they both died on the same day, July 4, 
1826. In his dying hours, Adams remembered his old 
friend in Virginia and spoke of him. 



Questions and Exercises 

The thirteen states had been able to work fairly well together 
as long as the fighting lasted ; why should they quarrel among 
themselves less at that time than when the fighting was over and 
they had won the victory ? How had the new nation come into 
possession of the Western lands ? Find these lands on the map. 
Can you think of any reason why the lands should have caused 
quarrels among the states ? The Continental Congress raised 
money to carry on the war by selling bonds ; what are bonds } 
Why did the bonds sold during the Revolution cause quarrels 
among the states after the war was over .'' 



THE BEGINNINGS OF A NEW GOVERNMENT i6i 

I. How many years passed between the peace treaty that ended 
the Revolution and the adoption of the Constitution ? How was 
the country governed during these years ? What do you think of 
Hamilton's proposals for the new government ? How did the Con- 
stitution as finally adopted differ from what he first proposed ? 
How many years have elapsed between the adoption of the Con- 
stitution and the present time ? What is meant by ratifying a 
constitution ? 

II. What city was the capital of the United States when Wash- 
ington was made President ? What city is now our capital ? 
How old was Washington when he became President ? What rea- 
sons would he have for not wishing to undertake the duties of this 
office ? What is meant by the President's cabinet ? With what 
part of the government's business is the Secretary of the Treasury 
concerned ? What three important measures did Hamilton put 
forward as Secretary of the Treasury ? What is meant by a tariff ? 
How does a tariff on imported goods protect American manufac- 
turers ? Do we have a United States Bank to-day ? Why, do you 
think, did Jefferson wish to see the country a "nation of farmers" 
rather than a manufacturing nation ? Is our country to-day 
chieHy a nation of farmers or a manufacturing nation ? The chief 
political parties of our early history were the Republicans and the 
Federalists ; what views did each hold ? What are the leading 
political parties to-day? The French Revolution began in 1789; 
how long was this after the beginning of the American Revolution : 
Have you any reason for believing that the success of the Ameri- 
can people in their struggle with the English King may have 
influenced the common people of France in deciding to revolt 
against their King and his government ? Which of the two 
American parties in our early history distrusted the common 
people ? How did the members of this party feel toward the French 
revolutionists ? How did the members of the opposing party 
feel ? 



l62 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

Suggestions for Reading 

Southworth's Builders of Our Country, Book II, pp. 97-107 
(Hamilton), pp. 108-115 (Jefferson); Stone and Fickett's Days 
and Deeds a Hundred Years Ago, pp. 36-52 (Washington's in- 
auguration) ; F. S. Dellenbaugh's George Washington in True 
Stories of Great Americans ; Brooks's Stories of the Old Bay State, 
pp. 157-173 (troublous days before the adoption of the Constitu- 
tion) ; Guerber's Story of Modern France, pp. 53-123 (the French 
Revolution) ; Anna Elizabeth Foote and Avery Warner Skinner's 
Makers and Defenders of America, pp. 111-116 (period after the 
Revolution), pp. 129-139 (Alexander Hamilton); C. C. Coffin's 
Building the Nation, pp. 13-41 (years immediately following the 
Revolution), pp. 42-62 (the French Revolution and its influence 
upon America). 

— Problems for Further Study 

Imagine yourself living in the time of which this chapter treats ; 
which of the two political parties would you have favored .'' Why ? 
Give as many reasons as you can for the fact that Washington is 
known as the "Father of his Country." Before the Constitution 
was adopted one state could lay a tariff on goods brought in from 
another state ; the Constitution forbade the laying of such tariffs ; 
why would it not be a good thing for the states to "protect" their 
own manufacturers in this way ? 



CHAPTER IX 

PATH BREAKERS TO THE PACIFIC 

The Problem : A Small Country or a Great One ? On 

March 4, 1801, when Jefferson took the oath of office 
as President, a great majority of the American people 
lived within fifty miles of the coast. Behind this line 
of seaboard towns and states, however, lived a sturdy 
pioneer people that had crossed the mountains, pene- 
trated the wilderness, staked out farms, built little 
towns, and opened trade down the Mississippi Valley. 
There were, in fact, by this time two states beyond the 
mountains, Kentucky and Tennessee. Ohio was filling 
up so fast that it was certain to be admitted to the Union 
very soon. The government of the region now em- 
braced in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and nearly 
all of Wisconsin had been provided for by Congress in 
the famous Northwest Ordinance of 1787; and home- 
makers were turning to the Northwest Territory, as 
this region was called, as the land of promise. 

Those who lived on the frontier saw a great future 
in the West. Three things, they thought, were neces- 
sary for its development : (i) the free and permanent 
use of the Mississippi River for shipping ; (2) explora- 

163 



164 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



tion • and a study of the resources; and (3) orderly 
government under the American system. 

It followed that they must persuade the self-satisfied 
Easterners to appreciate the importance of the West. 
The next thing was to get control of New Orleans and 
the west bank of the Mississippi River. 

So a very important problem was raised. Were the 
people of the United States to be satisfied with a small 
part of the continent facing Europe ? Or were they to 
look both ways, develop the wilderness, win a continent, 
and become a mighty nation ? 




The Northwest Territory 



Jefferson's Answer. Washington had fully appreci- 
ated the West. Neither was there anv doubt about the 



PATH BREAKERS TO THE PACIFIC 



165 



views of Thomas Jefferson on these points. He believed 
in farms rather than in cities. He knew the frontier 
and loved it. He knew hunters and explorers and 
trusted them. He was interested in the country west 
to the Pacific and 
wanted to learn 
all he could about 
it. He could even 
imagine that the 
Americans would 
sometime spread 
to the Pacific 
coast. His Secre- 
tary of State, 
James Madison, 
wrote that the 
Mississippi was 
" the Hudson, the 
Delaware, the Po- 
tomac, and all the 
navigable rivers of 
the Atlantic states 
rolled into one." 
Jefferson under- 
stood the mean- 
ing of that state- 
ment. He had a vision that the future of America 
would be in the West. A little seaboard country must 
grow to a continental nation. That was his answer. 




Thomas Jefferson, Who Wrote the First Draft 
OF the Declaration of Independence, was 
Secretary of State under Washington, and 
Became the Third President of the United 
States 



l66 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY ' . 

I. The Louisiana Purchase 

Jefferson's Interest in the West. There were many- 
ways in which Jefferson showed his keen interest in the 
West. He was a man of science. He sought all the 
information he could get on the plant and animal life 
and the mineral deposits of that region. When he heard 




MoNTicELLO, Jefferson's Home in Virgtnia 

of the bones of gigantic animals found near the Ohio 
River, he tried to obtain some of them for his collec- 
tion. He had learned of a river that ran " westwardly " 
beyond the Missouri River into the Pacific, and was 
curious to know whether the rumor was true. 

The Louisiana Territory. — There was a still more im- 
portant reason for Jefferson's concern in Western affairs ; 



PATH BREAKERS TO THE PACIFIC 167 

namely, the demand of the West for a free outlet to the 
Gulf of Mexico. The population in the Ohio and 
Mississippi valley was growing. The lower part of 
the Northwest Territory was being settled by pioneer 
farmers. 

The Louisiana territory, west of the Mississippi 
.River, was in the hands of Spain. It had been given 
to that country by the treaty of 1763 after France had 
been so badly beaten in the war with England. Spain 
also had possession of New Orleans and the mouth of 
the Mississippi ; and all the corn, bacon, and other 
produce of the Western farms had to pass through a 
foreign port on the way to shipment by sea. The 
Spanish officers did everything they could to hamper 
American business in New Orleans and in 1802 with- 
drew American privileges to trade at that port. 

About the same time came the news that Napoleon 
Bonaparte, the ruler of France, had secretly forced the 
Spanish King to give the Louisiana terrltor}^ back to 
France in the year 1800. Jefferson was thoroughly 
alarmed. He did not fear Spain very much. That 
country, he said, was now in " a feeble state." France 
was different. Napoleon was a victorious warrior and 
was bent on building up an empire in America. Jeffer- 
son could not endure the thought of this. " It is New 
Orleans," he wrote, " through which the produce of 
three-eighths of our territory must pass to market." 

Jefferson Tries to Buy Territory. No time was to 
be lost. Jefferson sent James Monroe to Paris to aid 



l68 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

our minister, Robert R. Livingston, in an effort to pur- 
chase New Orleans from France and the Floridas from 
Spain. " The future destinies of our country hang on 
the event of this negotiation," wrote Jefferson to Liv- 
ingston. That was true. Livingston knew it very 
well. He anxiously offered to buy the territory of 
New Orleans, only to be coldly brushed aside by 
France. He kept up his efforts in spite of continued 
discouragements. 

The Louisiana Purchase. Suddenly the luck of Na- 
poleon changed. War broke out between France and 
England. England had a great navy. Napoleon had 
no warships that could cope with it. Therefore he 
could not hope to hold Louisiana. Suddenly he 
ordered his minister to sell all the territory to the United 
States at a price fixed at fifteen million dollars. Living- 
ston and Aionroe, who had not been instructed to buy 
so much land, were staggered for a moment. Na- 
poleon wanted immediate action. There was no time 
to write home for orders. So they bought Louisiana 
and signed the treaty on April 30, 1803. 

When the news of this treaty arrived in America, 
everybody was astounded. Jefferson, though delighted, 
was in doubt as to whether the Senate would ratify the 
treaty. Many men of little vision attacked it savagely. 
They said that America did not need all that wilderness, 
that the price was too high, that the West would be- 
come greater than the East. All such objections, how- 
ever, were overcome. The treaty was ratified. When 



PATH BREAKERS TO THE PACIFIC 



169 



the Stars and Stripes were hoisted at New Orleans the 
territor}^ of the United States stretched to the Rocky 
Mountains. Settlers were to come from the ends of 




Firing a Salute to the American Flag as It is Hoisted in New Orleans to 
Announce That Louisiana has Become a Part of the United States 

the earth. The question was decided as to whether 
America was to be a little seaboard country or a conti- 
nental nation. 



I/O A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

II. The Lewis and Clark Expedition 

The Pacific Northwest. Beyond the borders of the 
Louisiana territory lay a great region extending to the 
Pacific. To whom did it belong ^ Spain laid claim to 
it as a part of the California country, which it had long 
possessed. England had strong claims, for Drake had 
sailed along the coast during his voyage around the 
world ; and English seamen, Captain Cook and Captain 
Vancouver, had explored the waters from California to 
Alaska. The United States had claims, because Cap- 
tain Gray, of Boston, in 1792 had sailed up the Pacific 
Coast and discovered a great river to which he gave 
the name of his ship, Columbia. 

Probably this was the river running " westwardly " 
of which Jefferson had already heard. Ever since 1782 
he had been trying to get some one to explore this dis- 
tant land. Nothing had come of his efforts. He had 
more than once lamented that the Americans were 
lacking in the spirit of enterprise because they would 
not raise the money necessary to fit out a party. It 
was not until he became President that he could 
act. In January, 1803, even before the Louisiana Pur- 
chase had been arranged, he asked Congress for the 
pitiful sum of $2500 to pay the expenses of exploring 
the Missouri country and the region beyond " even to 
the Western Ocean." Congress granted his request 
and, with great enthusiasm, Jefferson organized the ex- 
pedition. 



PATH BREAKERS TO THE PACIFIC 



171 



Meriwether Lewis. As first officer and leader of the 
exploring party, Jefferson chose his young friend, Cap- 
tain Meriwether 
Lewis, a Virginia lad, 
born and brought up 
in the neighborhood 
of Monticello, Jeffer- 
son's home in Vir- 
ginia. Lewis was 
then twent y-n i n e 
years old and a cap- 
tain in the army. He 
had been Jefferson's 
private secretary for 
two years and knew 
all the President's 
plans and hopes. He 
was, moreover, an 

J , Meriwether Lewis, Jefferson's Young 

experiencea nunter Friend, Chosen to Lead the Expedition 

and woodsman. He from the Mississippi River to the Paci- 

, ITT ^'^ Ocean in 1804 

knew the Indians and 

the forests. As Jefferson wrote of him, he was " of cour- 
age undaunted ; possessing a firmness and perseverance 
of purpose which nothing but impossibilities could divert 
from its direction ; careful as a father to those com- 
mitted to his charge, yet steady in the maintenance of 
order and discipline ; intimate with the Indian charac- 
ter, customs, and principles . . . honest, disinterested, 
liberal, of sound understanding, and a fidelity to truth 




172 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



so scrupulous that whatever he should report would be 
as certain as if seen b\" ourselves." Such was the man 
chosen to lead in a memorable journey to the Pacific. 

William Clark. As second in rank, there was selected 
William Clark, a brother of General George Rogers Clark, 

of Western fame. Clark 
was a few years older 
than Lewis, and also a 
captain in the army. He 
had seen Indian fighting 
in the West and was a 
tireless hunter and ex- 
plorer. He knew some- 
thing about the country 
across the Mississippi, 
for he had been there 
more than once. He was 
a brave and unselfish 
man, an excellent com- 
panion to the firm, quiet, 
and energetic Lewis. 
Fitting out the Expedition. For the journey, a small 
number of soldiers from the United States Army, two 
French watermen or rangers, and one colored man, a 
servant of Captain Clark, were chosen. To this group 
were added a few men to help them part way on the 
voyage up the Missouri. Three boats were fitted out. 
One of them was a keel boat fifty-five feet long, 
equipped with both oars and sails and carrying a small 




William Clark, Second in Command o\ 
THE Expedition to the Pacific 



PATH BREAKERS TO THE PACIFIC 173 

cannon. There were, in addition, two little boats shaped 
like flatirons, also with oars and sails. A large supply of 
food, clothing, and arms was collected. In order to 
trade with the Indians, Lewis and Clark took a great 
stock of red trousers, medals, flags, paints, beads, look- 
ing-glasses, and other trinkets. 

The Task of the Expedition. Jefferson was very 
careful to give Lewis and Clark full directions as to 
their duties. They were to explore the country, take 
full notes for maps, and record the animal, vegetable, 
and mineral resources of the region. They were to 
study the trade, customs, manners, languages, monu- 
ments, and industries of the Indians. They were to 
report on the opportunities for trade in the West, so 
that American citizens might know how to engage in it. 
Above all they were to trace the course of the Missouri 
River, and discover routes to the Pacific whether by the 
Columbia, Colorado, or some other river. In short, 
they were to find the most direct waterway across the 
Continent. 

The Great Journey. In May, 1804, Lewis and Clark 
turned their boats up the Missouri. Many citizens of 
St. Louis came out to bid them farewell. In a few days 
they passed the last white settlement, La Charrette. 
There they saw the pioneer, Daniel Boone, then nearly 
seventy years old, but still straight, strong, and hardy. 

Council Bluffs and the Mandan Indians. Near the 
mouth of the Platte River they held a " powwow " 
with some Indians and named the spot Council Bluffs. 



174 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



By the end of October, they had reached the villages 
of the Mandan Indians within the boundaries of North 
Dakota. The cold nights warned them of the coming 
winter. So they built a rude fort in which they spent 
that season. They were not idle for a moment. They 




The Regions Explored by Lewis and Clark in the Great Expedition to 

THE Pacific Coast 

made notes, wrote reports, drafted maps, and built 
new boats. 

The Land of the Bear and Buffalo. Early in April, 
1805, they were off again. In a few weeks they were 
in the Yellowstone country, where they saw " vast herds 
of buffalo, deer, elk, and antelope." They were sur- 
prised to find the animals so tame that they could ap- 
proach very near without alarming them. Here, too, 



PATH BREAKERS TO THE PACIFIC 175 

they found an animal not so tame, the terrible grizzly 
bear. 

The Headwaters of the Missouri. Early in August, 
1805, Captain Lewis, with one party, saw that he 
was approaching the headwaters of the Missouri — a 
narrow brook. One of the men with a foot on each 
bank gave thanks that he had lived " to bestride the 
Missouri." On the twelfth the explorers reached '' the 
hidden sources of that river which had never yet been 
seen by civilized man." They quenched their thirst in 
the icy waters and sat down upon the brink of the tiny 
rivulet, saying .that " they felt rewarded for all their 
labors and all their difficulties." They were at last 
high in the mountains, near the dividing line between 
the waters of the Atlantic and the Pacific. 

From the Mountains to the Sea. The journey up 
the Missouri had been comparatively easy. Now they 
were to descend to the Pacific through deep mountain 
gorges filled with floods of rushing waters. Storms of 
sleet and snow burst upon them. Game grew scarce 
and their food supply ran so low that they faced star- 
vation. It was not until October, 1805, that they 
reached the junction of the Lewis and Columbia rivers, 
where they found fairly easy sailing again. 

The Breakers Roar! On the seventh of November 
they heard the breakers roaring on the Pacific coast. 
The next day Captain Clark set down this record in his 
journal : " Great joy in camp. We are in view of the 
Ocean, this great Pacific Ocean which we have been so 



1/6 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

long anxious to see, and the roaring or noise made by 
the waves breaking on the rocky shores (as I suppose) 
may be heard distinctly." A few hours later he adds, 
" Ocean in view ! Oh ! the joy ! " 

The Winter at Fort Clatsop. At the mouth of the 
Columbia, they built Fort Clatsop, named after Indians 
found in the neighborhood. There they spent a long 
and trying winter. The men worked hard at hunting, 
fishing, and salt making. The oiBcers busied themselves 
with making a great map of the long overland route 
and writing up their accounts of the trip. 

The Homeward Journey. In March, 1806, they de- 
cided to turn their faces homeward. They prepared 
a list giving the names of the men in the party and a 
map showing the route they intended to take back to 
St. Louis. This record they left with the Indians, tell- 
ing them to give it to the first white man who came to 
that country. 

Their journey home was not so difficult as the trip 
out to the coast. For a part of the way, the group was 
divided, Lewis taking one company of men and Clark 
the other. For more than a month each followed his 
own route, learning all he could about the country. 

Happily united in August, 1806, the whole party set 
out rapidly downstream, making eighty-six miles the 
first day. The swift current of the Missouri bore them 
quickly to their journey's end. On September 23, they 
entered in their journal : " Descended to the Missis- 
sippi and round to St. Louis where we arrived at twelve 



PATH BREAKERS TO THE PACIFIC 177 

o'clock, and having fired a salute, went on shore and 
received the heartiest and most hospitable welcome 
from the whole village." Their survey was over. 

On that very day Captain Lewis sent a letter to Presi- 
dent Jefferson, who was anxiously waiting for news. 
Early in the next year the two captains presented them- 
selves in Washington. Congress, delighted with their 
work, rewarded both the officers and privates with 
grants of land. Lewis was made governor of the Loui- 
siana territory ; but was to enjoy his honors for a short 
time only. While traveling in Tennessee, in 1809, he 
met a violent death at a wayside log tavern. No- 
body knows what actually happened. He was buried 
in Lewis County, Tennessee, and the state built a hand- 
some monument to mark his resting place. His com- 
panion. Captain Clark, was appointed to a government 
post and lived until 1838. 

The Journals of Lewis and Clark. All during the 
long journey the two captains kept careful notes of 
everything important that they saw and heard. These 
notes were written up in the form of a complete journal 
giving the stor}' of their adventures. A great map 
carefully drawn showed the route which they had taken. 
These documents afford one of the most interesting 
records of travel in the annals of exploration. What 
would we not give for such a journal of Drake's trip 
or the wanderings of La Salle ! 

The journals of Lewis and Clark were published in 
reduced form In 1814. Strange to relate, it was not 



178 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



until 1905 that a full and exact copy of the complete 
record was issued. The old edition, however, was 
printed and reprinted in many forms. It was widely 
circulated all over the country. Children read it from 



^it-^A 7 ^ f//^€.^>0; ^^. a/ £-o~^&y^ tb^^ 






a C 




'4/} M'^>-C^yt'>-Jui,jE^ 



A Page from the Journal Which Clark Kept on the Oregon Expedition 

He drew the picture to show the head of a fossil monster which was found when he and his 
companions were exploring the country. 



PATH BREAKERS TO THE PACIFIC 179 

a love of adventure. Their elders read it to find out 
about the opportunities for trade and settlement in the 
Pacific Northwest. 

Five years after Clark's death the first great overland 
caravan journeyed into the Oregon country to lay the 
foundations of a new American state. In the footsteps 
of Lewis and Clark, fur traders, hunters, pioneers, home 
seekers, and miners made their way to build the Great 
West. 

Thus was the faith of Jefferson in the land beyond 
the Mississippi more than justified. 

Questions and Exercises 

What reason can you think of for the fact that the Americans 
did not settle the region west of the Appalachian Mountains to 
any great extent until after the Revolution f (Remember that 
the French had built forts and trading posts along the Great Lakes 
and the Mississippi River very much earlier.) 

I. What is meant by a country's resources .'' What were some 
of the resources of the Western lands that the thirteen states owned 
west of the mountains ? Why was it difficult to carry the products 
of these lands to the American towns and cities on the seaboard ? 
Why was it much easier to send them out through New Orleans .'' 
How do the farmers of Kentucky and southern Ohio to-day get their 
products to the eastern cities ^ Give as many reasons as you can 
showing why, in Jefferson's time, it was necessary for the United 
States to own and control New Orleans. What region do we now 
call Louisiana ? What region was called Louisiana in those days ."* 
What states now occupy this region ? Give as many reasons as 
you can showing that the Louisana purchase was a good bargain 
for the United States. 



i8o A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

II. What states now occupy the region between the Louisiana 
Purchase and the Pacific Ocean ? Locate the Columbia River. 
What large rivers flow into it ^ Trace on the map the route taken 
by Lewis and Clark on their journey to the mouth of the Colum- 
bia. What states would you go through if you went over this 
route to-day ^ W^hat important towns and cities would you pass ^ 
Name as many ways as you can in which a trip along this route 
to-day would differ from the trip of Lewis and Clark. Trace the 
homeward-bound routes of Lewis and Clark. What is meant by 
the journal of an expedition } 

Suggestions for Reading 

Foote and Skinner's Makers and Defenders of America, pp. 117- 
128 (Thomas JeflFerson) ; C. A. McMurry's Pioneers of the Rocky 
Mountains and the West, Ch. i (Lewis and Clark) ; McMurry's 
Pioneers of the Mississippi Valley, pp. 68-83 (Daniel Boone) ; 
Tappan's American Hero Stories, pp. 200-207 (Daniel Boone), 
pp. 207-217 (Lewis and Clark) ; Southworth's Builders of 0%ir 
Country pp. 113-115. 

To BE Read to Pupils 
Lighton's Lewis and Clark. 

Problems for Further Study 

The distance from St. Louis to the mouth of the Columbia 
River by the route that Lewis and Clark took is about 4000 miles ; 
they started on May 14, 1804 and reached their destination on 
November 15, 1805; how many days did the journey take.'' 
How many miles on the average did they travel each day 1 They 
left Fort Clatsop on March 23, 1806. How many days did the 
return journey occupy 1 How long would it take to make a journey 
of the distance to-day by train, if one traveled day and night at an 
average of twenty-live miles an hour ? 



CHAPTER X 

THE NEW WORLD DEFIES THE OLD 

The Problem : Shall America Take Part in European 
Quarrels? Louisiana was bought and the Far West 
penetrated by Lewis and Clark during a period when aU 
Europe was involved in a long war. This conflict had 
begun in a struggle between France and England in 1793. 
Except for a short lull, it raged for twenty-two years. 
All Europe, from Paris to Constantinople, from Lisbon 
to St. Petersburg, finally became involved in it. 

Blockade and Search. Though far away, this ter- 
rible conflict soon brought trouble for the United States. 
England declared the coasts of Europe blockaded, and 
France answered this by declaring a blockade against 
Great Britain. American ships sailing to English ports 
were thus liable to be captured by the French, while 
American ships sailing for important ports on the con- 
tinent of Europe were liable to be captured by the Brit- 
ish. Moreover, the British claimed the right to search 
American ships anywhere and take from them any 
British-born sailors found on board. 

Between France and England there was little to 
choose, as far as American Interests were concerned. 
Both countries preyed upon American commerce. 



1 82 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

Here was a most annoying problem. What should 
the United States do ? Fight Great Britain ? Fight 
France ? Fight both countries ? Beg the two coun- 
tries to be fair and reasonable ? Or what ? 

I. Diplomacy and the War with England 

Jefferson's Answer. Jefferson was above all a man 
of peace. " Peace is our passion ! " he exclaimed. Be- 
lieving in peace, he had allowed the American navy to 
shrink in size. Besides, it had never been any match 
for the British navy. Fighting seemed out of the ques- 
tion while Jefferson was President, unless, of course, the 
United States was ready to join England in a war on 
France. Jefferson's French sympathies were too strong 
for that. Moreover, the American people were not 
willing to join with their former foe. Great Britain, so 
soon after the Revolution. Especially were they un- 
willing to war against the French, who had helped them 
so much during their struggle for independence. Jeffer- 
son was in a terrible dilemma. 

The Embargo. At last he found what he thought 
was a remedy. He asked Congress to pass a law for- 
bidding all American ships to trade with European 
countries ; that is, to put an embargo on trade with 
Europe. New England merchants and ship owners 
thought the remedy worse than the disease. At least a 
few of their ships had managed to escape the clutches 
of the French and the English. By Jefferson's plan most 
of our ships were to be tied up and American foreign 



THE NEW WORLD DEFIES THE OLD 



183 



trade practically ruined. Congress, however, accepted 
Jeiferson's advice and passed the embargo law in 1807. 
What the critics expected happened. American sea 
trade was almost destroyed. All New England was 




A Cartoon of the Time Showing That Some People Thought Jefferson 
WAS BEING Robbed by Both Great Britain and France 

aflame with resentment. Jefferson was abused for his 
" weakness " and " timidity." It was easier to abuse 
him than to find a better way out of the trouble. He 
was certainly wear}^ of the strife and was heartily glad 
when his second term came to an end on March 4, 1809. 



184 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

With joy in his heart he hurried away to Monticello, 
where he spent the remaining seventeen years of his 
Hfe with his books and friends. 

The Views of James Madison. JeiTerson's suc- 
cessor, James Madison, was a man as peace-loving as 
himself. Unlike Washington, Hamilton, and many 
other leaders of the Revolutionary period, Madison had 
never seen any actual warfare. 

He was, however, a patriot. At the age of twenty- 
five he entered the cause of the Revolution as a delegate 
to the Virginia convention. He helped to frame a con- 
stitution for his native state and served for a time in 
the Continental Congress. 

As a member of the national convention that drafted 
the Constitution of the United States, Madison took 
a prominent part in the work. Indeed he earned the 
title of " the Father of the Constitution." Moreover, 
the ratification of the Constitution in Virginia was in 
a large part due to his labors. 

Madison entered the first Congress under the presi- 
dency of Washington and under Jefferson served as 
Secretary of State. On most matters he shared Jeffer- 
son's views. He was above all a student and had been 
since his college days at Princeton. He loved books 
more than the strife of politics or the excitement of the 
battlefield. It is not surprising that he too desired to 
keep peace with Europe. Nearly all of his first ad- 
ministration he spent in negotiations with France and 
England rather than in getting ready for war with them. 



THE NEW WORLD DEFIES THE OLD 185 

Madison Driven into the War of 1812. Madison 
might have kept up his negotiations if it had not 
been for a "war party " in Congress. Two members 
of this party, John C. Calhoun of South Carolina and 
Henry Clay of Kentucky, were savage in their criticism 
of England, thereby receiving the name of " War 
Hawks." Madison believed they were foolish. He 
wrote bitterly of their action in forcing war without 
making careful preparations for it. Yet he was com- 
pelled to bow to their will. When Congress declared 
war on England, June 18, 1812, he signed the bill. 
Without adequate forces on land or sea, the United 
States was again in arms against one of the first powers 
of the world. 

It was not long before the unfortunate results of war 
without preparation were brought home to everybody. 
An invasion of Canada failed. In August, 18 14, the 
British captured the Capital of our country, Washing- 
ton, and burnt many public buildings. President 
Madison fled in one direction. Mrs. Madison fled in 
another, carrying with her, in her reticule, all the 
White House silver she could gather up in her hasty 
departure. The British soon reached the presidential 
mansion and ate the dinner that had been prepared for 
the Madisons. 

Peace with England — the Battle of New Orleans. 
A few months after this humiliation, peace was made 
with England. During these years of conflict, the 
weary round of fighting was relieved only a few times 



1 86 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

by victories. Commodore Perry defeated the British 
in a memorable battle on Lake Erie, and there were 
some brilliant exploits on the ocean. A memorable 
event in American history occurred when the British 
made an unsuccessful attempt to capture Baltimore. 
This city was defended by Fort McHenry, which the 
British fleet bombarded in the hope that they might 
destroy it. The bombardment lasted far into the night. 
An American prisoner with the British fleet anxiously 
watched for the coming of the dawn to learn whether 
the flag still waved over the ramparts of the fort. 
While he was watching he composed the song that we 
now know as the " Star-Spangled Banner." 

The one consoling victory of the war was won by Gen- 
eral Andrew Jackson at New Orleans. That terrible 
battle was fought after peace had been made with Eng- 
land, just a short time before the good news reached 
America. 

Never were people more heartily sick of war than 
the Americans in January, 1815, when the ringing of 
bells and firing of cannon announced the end of hostili- 
ties. We are told that Federalists and Democrats for- 
got their ancient ill will and wept and laughed and 
kissed each other in the streets. The treaty itself did 
not do much for the Americans, but the great European 
war was over and England no longer had any reason to 
interfere with our commerce. 

Madison and Nullification. Like his predecessor, 
Madison was glad when the end of his term came and 



THE NEW WORLD DEFIES THE OLD 187 

he could retire to his home in Virginia. There he Hved 
to the ripe old age of eighty-five. 

His last years were made sorrowful by events in 
South Carolina. The people of that state denounced 
in strong language the tariff laws passed by Congress. 
They called a convention which declared that those 
laws could not be enforced in the state. The conven- 
tion asserted that the state was really an independent 
nation and could lay down the terms on which it would 
stay in the Union. This action, as we have seen before 
in the case of Kentucky, was called " nullifying " fed- 
eral law. 

Madison saw that nullification might lead to with- 
drawal from the Union ; that is, to secession. The last 
important paper which he wrote was a protest against 
that doctrine. "The Constitution and laws of the 
United States," he said, " are supreme over the con- 
stitutions and laws of the several states." He warned 
his countrymen that nullification might dissolve the 
Union. He had labored long and faithfully to estab- 
lish it, and his last thoughts were about maintaining it. 
Thus in his dying hours, in 1836, the " Father of the 
American Constitution " was thinking about the safety 
of the federal government and the American nation. 

n. Opposition to the War in New England 

Madison's Opponents. Far away in New England 
there was another old man, Harrison Gray Otis, who 
was equally alarmed by nullification in South Carolina. 



1 88 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

In earlier days he had been at swords' points with 
Madison over the war against England in 1812. 

Otis and the Embargo. When Congress laid an 
embargo on New England shipping in 1807, Otis was 
among the men who opposed it. He thought that even 
a war with England was more desirable than an embargo 




A Cartoonist Drew this Picture showing New England Jumping into the 
Hands of George III, the English King, Because the People of New 
England Opposed Jefferson's Embargo. 

which destroyed the trade of the commercial states. 
However, he did not want either. He took a prom- 
inent part in a special town meeting in Boston called 
to condemn the embargo. At that meeting the citizens 
petitioned the President to suspend the embargo in 
whole or in part. This request was not heeded by 
Jefferson. 



THE NEW WORLD DEFIES THE OLD 189 

The Hartford Convention. The war against Eng- 
land, declared by Congress in 18 12, was thought to be 
sheer madness by Otis and his Federalist friends. The 
Massachusetts legislature declared that the embargo 
was an act more odious than the Boston port bill — 
the bill that had " aroused the colonies into independ- 
ence." Some extremists talked about withdrawing from 
the Union and leaving the Southern states to light the 
war alone. 

Otis took the lead in condemning the war as bringing 
humiliation, danger, and distress upon the states. Un- 
der his influence, the Massachusetts legislature called 
a convention at Hartford, Connecticut, to consider a 
revision of the federal Constitution. Connecticut and 
Rhode Island joined Massachusetts in sending delegates. 

On December 15, 18 14, the convention met as ar- 
ranged. - The delegates were accused of trying to break 
up the Union and form a New England confederation. 
Both Madison and Jefferson were frightened on hearing 
the news. Fortunately, their alarms were groundless. 

The convention did criticize Madison for involving 
the country in " a ruinous war " ; it did attack the 
methods used in raising troops ; it also asserted that 
New England trade had been sacrificed by the war 
policy 6i the President ; it proposed amendments to 
the federal Constitution ; but It stopped far short of 
the " treason " with which it was charged. The close 
of the war just at that time brought all such proceed- 
ings on the part of the Federalists to an end. 



igo A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

The Federal Party Breaks Up. Otis and the members 
of the Hartford Convention were at once accused by 
Madison's party, the RepubHcans, of being enemies of 
their country. This charge was not true ; but many of 
the Federalists had undoubtedly failed to help the gov- 
ernment loyally in the war. They had criticized the 
war instead of supporting it. 

As a result the Federalists were sadly beaten in the 
election of 1816 and then disappeared as a political party. 
Whenever Otis appeared as a candidate for office his 
record at Hartford was brought up against him. In one 
election a political writer condemned him in the follow- 
ing lines of very poor poetry : 

Who was at Hartford .'' 
I says Sir Harry. 
At Hartford did tarry, 
And I was at Hartford . . . 
And honest men frown whenever they mention 
The names of Sir Harry and the Hartford Convention. 

HI. James Monroe and the Monroe Doctrine 

The Fourth Virginia President. On March 4, 18 17, 
it fell to the lot of Otis to witness the inauguration of 
a stanch Madison man — James Monroe — as President. 
Monroe was then nearly sixty years old. His birth- 
place was not far from that of George Washington. 
He belonged to the generation of men who established 
the independence of America. His father was a well- 
to-do planter and, in his youth, young James heard at 



THE NEW WORLD DEFIES THE OLD 191 

the dinner table strong criticism of the Stamp Act. He 
was at the old college of William and Mary when the 
Revolutionary War opened and was one of a group of 
teachers and students who at once went into the army. 

Monroe in the Revolution. In 1776 Monroe joined 
Washington's forces near New York. He was in the 
battle of. White Plains. He was wounded at Trenton 
when the Hessians were captured. The next yea.T he 
was again in active service at the battles of Brandy- 
wine, Germantown, and Monmouth. At the end of the 
war he was serving as a volunteer in defense of Virginia. 

Monroe in Politics. Monroe afterward became a 
member of the Virginia legislature and governor of the 
state. He had not been in favor of the Constitution be- 
fore its adoption. When the states had voted for it, 
however, he accepted it and was ever afterward loyal 
to the new government. He served as United States 
senator, commissioner to France, Secretary of War, and 
Secretary of State. The last office he held when elected 
President. By travel and service abroad he had be- 
come well acquainted with European affairs. Monroe 
was, then, well fitted by his long experience to do the 
difiicult work that falls to the President. 

Monroe and Florida. One of the most important acts 
of Monroe's first term was the purchase of Florida from 
Spain. On taking office he found trouble along the 
southern border of the United States. At that time both 
East and West Florida were under Spanish rule. Span- 
ish settlements were small and widely scattered. The 



192 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



two territories were the home of Indians, pirates, and 
escaped robbers and slaves from the United States. 
Vexed at the constant troubles on the border, Monroe 
sent General Andrew Jackson with a small force to put 

a stop to it in Jan- 
uary, 181 8. Jack- 
son thought this 
was a hint to seize 
the Floridas, and he 
proceeded to take 
immediate posses- 
sion of them. His 
somewhat high- 
handed action al- 
mostbrought about 
war between the 
United States and 
Spain. It was only 
by skillful manage- 
ment that the 
Spanish king was 
mollified and in- 
duced to sell the 
Floridas to the 
United States. A treaty providing for the sale was 
signed at Washington on February 22, 1819. 

Latin-American Affairs. The trouble with Spain over 
the Floridas was soon followed by a new difficulty. 
Shortlv before this time the other Spanish colonies in 




James Monroe, a Virginia Soldier, President 
OF THE United States and Author of the 
Monroe Doctrine 



THE NEW WORLD DEFIES THE OLD 193 

the New World had revolted and declared their inde- 
pendence. The King of Spain, like George III, tried to 
hold his rich American provinces. He asked the other 
kings of Europe to help him. This presented a griev- 
ous problem to the United States. Should our govern- 
ment sit idly by and see the rule of a monarch reestab- 
lished over the Mexican and South American republics 
— all " Latin America " } If this were permitted the 
European countries might then attack the republic of 
the United States. 

Jefferson's View. In his anxiety, President Mon- 
roe wrote to his old friend, Thomas Jefferson, at 
Monticello for his advice on this point. He soon 
received a clear-cut answer. " Our first and funda- 
mental maxim should be never to entangle ourselves 
in the broils of Europe," wrote Jefferson. He added 
that we should not allow Europe to meddle with our 
affairs. 

The Monroe Doctrine. A short time after receiv- 
ing Jefferson's letter, namely on December 2, 1823, 
Monroe sent to Congress the message containing the 
famous " doctrine " that bears his name. He said 
that any attempt on the part of the kings of Europe 
to extend their rule or system of government to this 
hemisphere was dangerous to our peace and safety. 
He added that if they attempted to oppress or control 
the new South American republics, such action would 
be viewed as unfriendly to the United States. 

A second part of Monroe's message dealt with the 



194 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

Czar of Russia. That monarch had laid claim to 
lands in North America from Alaska far down the 
Pacific coast. President Monroe informed the Czar 
that this was not approved by the United States. He 
went on to say that no more American territory was 
to be colonized in the future by any European power. 

These statements by Monroe were a fair warning to 
Europe. The United States condemned restoring the 
monarchy in the former Spanish colonies. It disap- 
proved any attempt on the part of European powers 
to establish new colonies in North or South America, 
or to control the affairs of the republics of North or 
South America. Ever since that day, these prin- 
ciples have been highly esteemed throughout the 
United States. 

Questions and Exercises 

Why should a great war in Europe have caused trouble to the 
people of the United States at the time of which we are studying .'' 
What is meant by a blockade ? Why does it hurt a country to 
have its ports blockaded ? What would be some of the ills that 
we should suffer if another nation should succeed in blockading 
our ports to-day ? Why, do you think, did the English wish to 
take British-born sailors from American ships at a time when the 
two countries were not at war ? The English said, "Once an Eng- 
lishman, always an Englishman " ; why would such a ruling affect 
many sailors on American ships at the time of these early troubles ? 

I. What is the difference between an embargo and a blockade ^ 
Why was Jefferson's embargo on American ships unpopular ? 
How long did the War of 1812 last.? Why is it particularly 
humiliating for a nation at war to have its capital city captured 



THE NEW WORLD DEFIES THE OLD 195 

by the enemy ? A naval battle was fought on Lake Erie near 
Sandusky; find these on the map. Where, do you think, did the 
ships come from that were engaged in the battle of Lake Erie ? 
Locate New Orleans. Why would the enemy wish especially 
to capture this city ^ How did it happen that the battle of New 
Orleans was fought after the peace treaty had been signed ? Why 
could not such a thing happen to-day ? 

IL At the time of the W'^ar of 1812, New England sent out more 
ships than any other part of the country ; can you think of any 
reasons why New England was well fitted to carry on commerce 
with countries overseas ^ Why were the people of New England 
generally opposed to the war f W^h}^ is it important to remember 
the Hartford Convention ^ 

111. Why was Monroe especially well fitted to be President .'' 
Locate Florida. What American general seized Florida ? In 
what connection have we heard of him before ^ How was the 
difficulty with Spain over Florida finally settled .'' What is meant 
by Latin-America ^ Name some of the Latin-American coun- 
tries, and find them on the map. Give as many reasons as you 
can explaining why the Monroe Doctrine has been so important 
in our history. What European countries still hold possessions 
on the American continent ^ Locate on the map the most im- 
portant of these possessions. To what country did Alaska once 
belong ? What country owns Alaska now ^ 

Suggestions for Readings 

Johonnot's Stories of our Country, pp. 177-186 (Perry and Lake 
Erie), pp. 187-192 (the "Star-Spangled Banner"), pp. 192-198 
(New Orleans); Tappan's American Hero Stories, pp. 218-224 
(Perry), pp. 224-230 (Dolly Madison), pp. 231-236 (the' "Star- 
Spangled Banner") ; Southworth's Builders of Our Country, 
Book n, pp. 108-115 (Jefferson), pp. 140-146 (Perry and Alac- 
donough), pp. 149-156 (Jackson's early life) ; Coffin's Building 



196 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

the Nation, Chs. xi, xii, xiii, xiv, xv (War of 1812), pp. 232-246 
(Monroe's administration) ; Guerber's Story of Modern France, 
pp. 166-218 (events in Europe, 1804-18 14). 

To BE Read to Pupils 

Hart's Source Readers in American History, No. 3, Hozv Our 
Grandfathers Lived, pp. 228-231 (impressment of sailors), pp. 238- 
247 ("Constitution" and "Guerriere"), pp. 248-249 (Lake Erie), 
249-251 (the "Star-Spangled Banner"), pp. 281-282 (Dolly Madi- 
son), pp. 291-300 (Battle of the Thames and Niagara campaign) ; 
Roosevelt and Lodge : Hero Tales from American History, pp. 117- 
136 (naval encounters of War of 1812), pp. 139-147 (New Orleans). 
H. A. Guerber's Story of the Great Republic, pp. 98-101 (purchase 
of Florida and the Monroe Doctrine). 

Problems for Further Study 

Were the Americans victorious in the War of 1812 or were they 
beaten ? Give reasons for the answer that you make. In what 
important ways did warfare in 1812-14 differ from warfare to-day t 



CHAPTER XI 

THE OLD EAST AND THE NEW WEST 

The Problem : Shall the Eastern States Control the 
Nation? When, in 1825, James Monroe turned the 
presidency over to John Quincy Adams, eleven new states 
had been added to the original thirteen. Except for 
Vermont and A'laine, all of them were in the West : 
Kentucky, Tennessee, Ohio, Louisiana, Indiana, Missis- 
sippi, Illinois, Alabama, and Missouri. The Western 
states were devoted almost entirely to agriculture. 
They were settled by small farmers and planters. This 
growing West was just what timid people on the sea- 
board had long dreaded. 

Up to this time the East had controlled public af- 
fairs. All the Presidents had been from the East. 
Four of them, Washington, Jefferson, Madison, and 
Monroe, came from Virginia ; two, John Adams and 
John Quincy Adams, came from Massachusetts. The 
people on the coast had grown accustomed to governing 
the countr}^ " What will become of us," they cried, 
" if frontiersmen, uneducated farmers, hunters, and 
Indian fighters have a majority of the votes .? What do 
they know about commerce, cities, foreign affairs, bank- 
ing, and government .'' " 

197 




The United States Contained Twenty-four States When John Quincy 

Adams Became President 

198 



THE OLD EAST AND THE NEW WEST 199 

The people who held these views were seriously 
worried about the fate of the nation. They found out 
what would happen when, in 1828, the West sent them 
a President fresh from the frontier. 

I. The Man from the West — ^ Andrew Jackson 

The Early Life of Jackson. This newcomer in 
politics was a true " son of the soil." His father 
and mother, immigrants from Ireland, had settled on 
the border of the two Carolinas, where their son, 
Andrew, was born in 1767. 

When the British troops swept into that region 
during the Revolution they carried off the boy as a 
prisoner. At the end of the war his father, mother, 
and brothers were dead and he was alone in the world. 
How much schooling he received, if any, we do not 
know. It appears that he tried the saddler's trade 
first. Then he studied law. According to stories 
he was " gay, careless, rollicking, fond of horses, rac- 
ing, cock fighting, and mischief." 

Jackson of Tennessee. In 1788, the year before 
Washington was inaugurated as President, Jackson 
was appointed prosecutor in Tennessee, then a part 
of North Carolina. At that time Tennessee was a 
wild frontier country. 

Jackson early engaged in " backwoods " politics. 
He was a member of the conyention that drafted the 
constitution of Tennessee in 1796. The state was ad- 
mitted to the Union in that vear. He was then elected 



200 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



a member of the House of Representatives of the 
United States, but did not accompHsh anything at the 
national capital, which was then Philadelphia. One 
who saw him there described him as " a tall, lank, 
uncouth-looking personage, with long locks of hair 
hanging over his face, and a cue down his back tied 




Battle of New Orleans 
From De Lami's painting in the Louisiana State Museum 

in an eelskin ; his dress singular, his manners and de- 
portment that of a backwoodsman." When he first 
tried to speak in Congress he choked with rage and 
had to sit down. 

The Hero of New Orleans. On his return to Ten- 
nessee, Jackson tried farming and storekeeping. When 
the War of 1812 with England broke out, he was forty- 



THE OLD EAST AND THE NEW WEST 201 

five years old and had shown no signs of ever doing 
anything unusual in the world. That war proved to 
be his opportunity. He was put at the head of troops 
sent against the Creek Indians and quickly proved 
that at all events he could fight. 

In 1 8 14 he was made a major-general in the Army 
of the United States and given command of the South- 
western division. In January of the next year he won 
his famous victory over the British at New Orleans. 
This brilliant stroke suddenly lifted him to national 
fame. The war had brought many humiliations. 
Jackson's victory was therefore doubly welcome. The 
lowly and uneducated, but able and courageous, fron- 
tiersman had become a popular hero. 

The Florida Affair. Jackson had not yet finished 
his work. He won more military honors in the Floridas 
which, as we have seen, he seized in 1818. These ex- 
ploits made Jackson the idol of the West. 

Jackson in Politics. Jackson was promptly elected 
to the Senate and his friends went to work to elect 
him President. In 1822 the Tennessee legislature 
nominated him. All over the country hosts of friends 
hailed the event. In 1824 he received more votes than 
any other candidate. But the votes of the people do 
not directly elect a President. In reality the people 
vote for " presidential electors " and these electors in 
turn vote for President and Vice President. It happened 
in this election that no one candidate received a major- 
ity (that is, more than half) of the " electoral " votes. 



202 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

The Constitution provides that when such a thing hap- 
pens, the House of Representatives shall choose a Pres- 
ident. In this case, then, the choice was with the 
House of Representatives and this body did not choose 
Jackson but gave the majority of their votes to John 
Quincy Adams. 

The defeat enraged Jackson and his supporters. 
The popular vote had been decidedly in his favor and 
his friends thought that he had really been " cheated " 
out of the presidency. They grumbled, and prepared 
to wage a hot campaign during the next election. 

Fear of Jackson. All over the United States, though 
more especially in the East, there were men who feared 
that Jackson would wreck the country if elected. 
Jefferson wrote of him : " I feel very much alarmed 
at the prospect of seeing General Jackson President. 
He is one of the most unfit men I know of for the place. 
. . . His passions are terrible. . . . He is a dangerous 
man." Jackson's opponents represented him as a reck- 
less, lawless, cruel, and evil spirit. Handbills were issued 
containing the picture of a coffin and a list of Jackson's 
" terrible deeds." These were known as the " coffin 
handbills." To the frightened New England Federalists, 
now few in numbers, it seemed that the world would 
come to an end if such a man were chosen President. 

The Election of 1828. The long-dreaded event hap- 
pened, however, in 1828. The Hero of New Orleans 
was elected President by a great majority. Jackson's 
opponent, Adams, did not get a single electoral vote 



THE OLD EAST AND THE NEW WEST 203 

west of the Alleghenies or south of the Potomac. Ac- 
cording to a story of the time, two men in Tennessee 
who attempted to vote for Adams were threatened with 
tar and feathers. Jackson, on the other hand, received 
only one electoral vote in New England. It was an 
ominous division of the country. The South was 
solid and so was New England. Jackson was clearly 
a spokesmxan of the South and West, although he 
received a large vote in New York and Pennsylvania. 

II. Jackson as President 

The Inauguration. Never had the city of Wash- 
ington witnessed such a scene as on March 4, 1829, 
when Jackson was inaugurated. The farmers and me- 
chanics felt that they had a friend in the President's 
chair. " Persons have come five hundred miles (with 
no railways)," wrote Daniel Webster, of Massachu- 
setts, " to see Jackson and they really seem to think 
that the country is rescued from some dreadful danger." 
Men of the older generation with powdered hair, knee 
breeches, silk stockings, and silver buckles were rudely 
jostled to one side. The age of the " aristocrat," 
as Jackson's friends remarked, had come to an end. 
*' It seemed," related a witness, " as if half the nation 
had rushed at once into the capital. . . . The West 
and South seemed to have thrown themselves upon 
the North and overwhelmed it. . . . Strange faces 
filled every public place and every face seemed to bear 
defiance on its brow." 



204 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



The Spoils System. As soon as Jackson was safely- 
installed in office a clamor went up against the clerks 
and other employees of the government. The Presi- 
dent's supporters declared that the old officeholders 

should be turned out to 
make room for his friends. 
This was a novel idea at 
Washington. Up to that 
time each new President 
had allowed nearly all the 
minor officers to keep 
their places. 

The " Old Hero " had 
little respect for such 
time-honored customs. 
He loved his friends and 
hated his enemies. It 
was only fair play, he 
thought, to give " jobs " 
to those who had helped 
to elect him. 

The government em- 
ployees were, many of 
them, old and faithful 
servants of the public. Most of them had held their 
posts for years, and were highly experienced in their 
work. That did not matter to Jackson. He said 
any man could learn the duties of public office in a 
short time. 




Andrew Jackson, from a Picture Made 
AT THE Time He was President 



THE OLD EAST AND THE NEW WEST 205 

Jackson men hunting jobs descended upon the Presi- 
dent like a swarm of locusts. They besieged him in 
the White House and dogged his steps on the streets. 
One office-seeker remarked that he was ashamed of him- 
self because he felt that every one he met knew why 
he was there. " Don't distress yourself," replied a 
friend, " for every man you meet is on the same busi- 
ness." 

Within a year the President had discharged more 
than two thousand employees. From Washington's 
day to Jackson's, only seventy-four had been removed, 
several of them for misconduct. Now old and tried 
men were discharged for no cause at all — just to make 
room for Jackson men. Politicians took up the cry : 
" To the victor belong the spoils." Thus they spread 
abroad the evil notion that government offices should 
be turned over to workers in political parties. 

Jackson and Nullification in South Carolina. Be- 
, fore the end of his first term, Jackson was con- 
fronted with a quarrel between the national govern- 
ment and South Carolina. It was over the tariff laws 
passed by Congress to protect American manufacturers 
by putting a tax on manufactured goods brought in 
from other countries. South Carolina did not like 
these measures, especially the act passed in 1828; 
and, as we have seen (p. 187), the people of the state 
refused to obey the laws — nullified them, in short. 
Thus the President and entire government of the 
United States were defied. 



2o6 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

South Carolina was disappointed in Jackson. It 
should have known, however, where he stood. At a 
grand banquet in Washington, he had proposed a 
toast : " Our federal union : it must be preserved." 
When he heard of " nullification " in South Carolina, 
he ordered two warships to Charleston and instructed 
federal troops to prepare for action. Then he made a 
vigorous proclamation. He told the people of South 
Carolina that the national government was supreme 
and that no state had a right to nullify a law. 

This answer surprised the South Carolinians and 
aroused Congress to action. In the uproar a com- 
promise was reached. Steps were taken to reduce the 
tariif against which such vigorous protests had been 
made. At the same time, provisions were made to 
enforce the law against any state that refused to obey 
It. Thus neither side won a clean victory. Jackson's 
cry : " Our federal union : It must be preserved ! " 
rang throughout the countr}^ It was taken up by 
thousands of his followers. In the time to come men 
were to die for it on the field of battle. 

The Business of the United States Bank. In the 
closing days of Madison's presidency Congress had es- 
tablished a second United States Bank. The Bank had 
large powers. It could establish branches In all parts of 
the country. It could Issue notes to circulate as money. 
It received huge deposits of United States money 
collected from taxation. The ofiicers and agents were 
business men of wide influence In their communities. 



THE OLD EAST AND THE NEW WEST 207 

The Charges against the Bank. Jackson cher- 
ished a deadly enmity toward the Bank. He said it 
was a dangerous " money power." He accused the 
Bank officers of taking part in elections and charged 
them with opposing the "will of the people." He al- 
leged that they tried to use the Bank and the federal 
government for selfish purposes. For these and other 
reasons he insisted that the charter of the Bank should 
not be renewed at the end of its term in 1836. 

This was just what the leading business men in the 
East feared from the West. The Bank had been very 
useful to them. Its notes were "sound"; that is, 
were recognized as " good money " all over the coun- 
try. The branches of the Bank in different sections 
made it easy to do business on a national scale. There 
was no danger that such a bank might fail and defraud 
depositors. 

Destroying the Bank. His reelection as President in 
1832 convinced Jackson that the people approved his 
conduct. He decided not to wait until the end of the 
Bank's charter in 1836 to destroy it. He issued an 
order that all the government's money should be with- 
drawn from the bank and its branches. This act was 
viewed by Jackson's party as a triumph over an " evil 
money power." 

The Senate Attacks Jackson. Jackson's old op- 
ponent, Henry Clay, was at this moment in the Senate. 
He declared that Jackson had acted without authority 
in removing the deposits, and called him a " usurper." 



2o8 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

Clay introduced two resolutions. The first accused 
Jackson of acting in defiance of the law and the Consti- 
tution. The second asserted that the reasons given 
for the removal of the deposits were neither sufficient 
nor satisfactory. Both resolutions were carried in 1834. 

The Criticism Withdrawn. The President's wrath 
knew no bounds. His followers, proudly styling them- 
selves Jacksonian Democrats, rallied in force to his 
defense, when at last they had a majority in the 
Senate. One of the leaders, Thomas H. Benton, of Mis- 
souri, moved that the resolution of censure be struck 
from the records of the Senate. In January, 1837, 
this resolution was adopted. With great ceremony a 
black line was drawn around the record on the journal 
where Jackson was censured. Across the page was 
written " Expunged by order of the Senate." 

This was a great personal triumph for Jackson. On 
every point he had humiliated his enemies. He had 
destroyed the Bank. He had made the Senate " eat 
its own words " of criticism against him. That was 
not all. He literally named his successor to the office 
of President. 

Jackson and Van Buren. Among his warm supporters 
was a forceful politician from the state of New York, 
Martin Van Buren. When the time for his retire- 
ment approached, Jackson told his advisers that he 
wanted them to agree on his friend for President. 
Many of them did not like this order, but they were 
accustomed to obey the wishes of their chief. 



THE OLD EAST AND THE NEW WEST 



209 



So they went to work to win the nomination of Van 
Buren at the Democratic convention of 1836. By 
shrewd management they were able to do it. Indeed, 
as a Baltimore newspaper said, " the whole proceeding 
of the convention has been management, management, 
management, manage- 
ment." It was crowded 
with Jackson's office 
holders. 

At the election of 1836, 
the voters were told that 
Van Buren was a friend of 
Jackson, That was enough 
for Jackson's supporters. 
They voted for Van Buren, 
electing him President by 
a safe majority. 

Jackson Retires to Ten- 
nessee. On March 4, 1837, 
Jackson witnessed what he 
called "the glorious scene" of Van Buren's inaugura- 
tion. Three days later he commenced a triumphal tour 
to his old home. At Nashville the people fairly went 
wild with joy at the sight of their " Old Hero." His 
residence, the Hermitage, near by, became the place to 
which devoted Jackson men made pilgrimages. Poli- 
ticians sought his advice and help. He continued to 
take part in public affairs, indorsing candidates and 
writing letters in favor of various political schemes. 




Martin Van Buren 



2IO A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

No President, except Washington, had enjoyed such 
popularity and such triumphs. Certainly no President 
ever wielded more power in office. Everything favored 
his fortunes and added to his fame. He overcame all 
his opponents and attained every honor he sought. He 
had been the first to make his way upward from poverty 
and obscurity to the White House. He could, there- 
fore, with a cheerful heart forgive his enemies in his de- 
clining years and pass away in peace. In the summer 
of 1845 he died at his home, surrounded by faithful 
and loving friends. 

Questions and Exercises 

Find on the map the states that were admitted to the Union 
between 1789 and 1825. How many years did this period cover .^ 
Name as many ways as you can in which the settlers of the new 
Western states would be likely to differ from the men and women 
who lived in the older states. Why should the East have feared 
the West f 

I. Give as many reasons as you can to explain why a man like 
Andrew Jackson would be popular among the settlers of the new 
Western states. What is the difference between the "popular" 
vote for president and the "electoral" vote? What is meant by 
the statement, "The South was solid and so was New England " ^ 
Why was this an "ominous" division of the country.^ Can you 
think of any words that mean about the same as "ominous"? 

II. What is meant by the "spoils system" in politics? Why 
is it a bad system ? Do you know of any men or women in your 
locality who are in the employ of the national Government ? How 
do you think these men and women would like to work for the Gov- 
ernment under the spoils system ? What part of the country in 



THE OLD EAST AND THE NEW WEST 211 

those days would have been most favorable toward tariffs on manu- 
factured goods ? Why ? What part of the country would have 
objected to high tariffs on such goods ? Why ? What did South 
Carolina mean by "nullifying" the tariff laws ? How did Jackson 
treat this threat ? What kind of business does a bank do ? Why 
was Jackson opposed to the United States Bank ? What did 
Henry Clay mean when he said that Jackson had "usurped" 
power in order to destroy the bank ? What is meant by a " reso- 
lution of censure " ? Give as many words as you can telling the 
kind of man that Jackson was ; for example, "Jackson was brave, 
obstinate, , " 

Suggestions for Reading 

Coffin's Building the Nation, pp. 246-250 (the tariff and nullifica- 
tion) ; Southworth's Builders of Our Country, pp. 156-157 (Jack- 
son as President) ; W. F. Gordy's American Leaders and Heroes, 
pp. 253-262 (Jackson) ; Guerber's Story of the Great Republic, 
pp. 106-109 (Jackson's Presidency). 

Problems for Further Study 

Make a list of the Presidents that we have studied about so far. 
Of these which ones had been soldiers in the Revolution or in the 
War of 1812 .f* Why are men who have won fame as soldiers often 
popular candidates for the presidency ? 



CHAPTER XII 

MAKING AN INDUSTRIAL NATION 

The Problem : How to Obtain a Large Output of 
Goods and Quick Transportation. Thomas Jefferson 
wanted America to be an agricultural country. He be- 
lieved that the life of the free, land-owning farmer was 
the best life for a citizen of a republic. He wished to 
keep workshops and cities In Europe. His great rival, 
Alexander Hamilton, thought differently. He held that 
industries to supply manufactured goods were necessary 
to prosperity in peace and to strength and defense In 
war. In the course of time Hamilton's idea triumphed 
in America. 

In order that the country might have prosperous in- 
dustries, many things were necessary. There had to 
be capital, or accumulations of money, to start indus- 
tries. There had to be able managers and skillful 
working people. There had to be plenty of raw ma- 
terials of all kinds. 

That was not all. New and quicker ways of making 
goods and carrying them to market had to be found. 
That was a constant problem before industrial leaders. 

The Inventors. Accordingly there was a call for 
ingenious persons, called inventors, to help solve the 



MAKING AN INDUSTRIAL NATION 21 3 

problem which confronted business men. Clever per- 
sons in all parts of the country heard the call for help 
and began to make new and wonderful machines. 
Sometimes they thought of original ideas themselves 
and sometimes they borrowed ideas from other people. 
Indeed, they depended so much upon one another that 
it is hardly fair to mention five or six, and say nothing 
about hundreds of others who did their full share 
too. Nevertheless, a few do stand out as great leaders. 

I. The Cotton Gin 

Eli Whitney. One of the most original of all Ameri- 
can inventors was the man who made the cotton gin, 
Eli Whitney. The idea was in the air, but it was he 
who first used it in making a practical working machine. 

Cotton was formerly prepared for spinning in a 
most laborious manner. Every one of the seeds had 
to be picked out of the fibers by hand. Even a swift 
worker could prepare only about a pound or two a day. 
This tedious method of cleaning restricted both the 
planting and the spinning of cotton. 

One day, while George Washington was President 
of the United States, a little group of people, on a plan- 
tation near Savannah, Georgia, happened to be talking 
about the slow way of taking seed out of cotton. One 
of them remarked that a better way ought to be found 
to do it. Among the group was the widow of General 
Nathanael Greene, who had settled in the South with 



214 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



her husband after the Revolutionary War. Mrs. 
Greene was impressed by the idea and discussed it 

with a young man 
from Massachu- 
setts who was then 
living in her home 
as teacher, or 
tutor, of her chil- 
dren. 

A Yankee Me- 
chanic. The young 
man was Eli Whit- 
ney. His father 
had been a well-to- 
do New England 
farmer who, in ad- 
dition to tilling the 
soil, made many 
useful tools in his 
little workshop. 
During the long 
winter days, the 
boy played in the 
shop and learned to make things himself. He was 
about ten years old when the Revolutionary War 
brought a big demand for nails, and he set to work 
with a vim to make them. 

At Yale College. He might have gone on with me- 
chanical work and become a prosperous smith, but he 




Eli Whitm,^, Iwintor of the Cotton Gin and 
Successful Manufacturer 



MAKING AN INDUSTRIAL NATION 215 

felt that he needed a better education. His father was 
able to help him to some extent and Eli earned a little 
money by doing odd jobs ; thus he managed to make 
his way through Yale College. 

A Trip to Georgia. On finishing his college work in 
1792, Whitney decided to teach. He heard of a posi- 
tion at Savannah, Georgia, and sailed south to seek 
it. During the long voyage down the coast he met 
Mrs, Greene on the boat and she was much pleased 
with his cheerful ways and eager face. On arriving at 
Savannah he found the vacancy filled. Mrs. Greene 
came to his aid by inviting him out to her near-by 
plantation. 

Inventing the Cotton Gin. She took him into the 
family as a tutor. There he was, when the idea of in- 
venting a cotton cleaner was suggested to him. Quick 
as a flash he took it up. He fitted teeth into wooden 
rollers. He made stiff brushes to strip the cotton from 
the rollers. In a short time he had a machine ready. 
He fed cotton into it, turned a crank, and, to his delight, 
the cotton came out at the other side without a seed in 
it. His contrivance was called a " gin " — an abbrevi- 
ation of the word " engine." Before Whitney could 
get a patent on his machine some one broke into his shop 
and stole the design. It thus became common prop- 
erty. In a few years gins driven by horse power and 
then by steam were found all over the cotton districts 
of the South. Cotton growing extended rapidly through- 
out the Gulf region. 



2l6 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



A Successful Manufacturer. Though Whitney lost 
his cotton gin, he did not give up inventing. He re- 
turned North and worked on the improvement of fire- 
arms. He was successful at this and built a large 
factory at Whitneyville, near New Haven. At his 














Eli Whitney's Factory near New Haven, Connecticut 

death, in 1825, he was one of the wealthiest manufac- 
turers in the country. 

The Cotton Gin Makes a Revolution. Whitney's 
cotton gin really made a revolution in industry. Spin- 
ning by machinery had already been invented in Eng- 
land. With a gin, a thousand pounds or more of cot- 
ton could be cleaned in a day. So the demand for raw 
cotton was almost without limit. Southern planters 
went to work with energy to meet the demand. They 
called for more land and more slaves. Thus the plant- 



MAKING AN INDUSTRIAL NATION 217 

ing system and slavery spread quickly into the South- 
west. 

II. The Reaper 

Cutting Grain by Old Methods. The cotton gin was 
important for the planters. Another invention, the 
reaper, was equally important for the farmers of the 
North and West. In the old days wheat and rye were 
cut with a sickle, a small curved knife. The harvester 
took a handful of grain in one hand and cut the straws 
off with the sickle. This was a slow process. After 
the sickle came the " scythe and cradle." The scythe 
was a long knife attached to a handle. Above the 
blade were fixed long wooden fingers a few inches 
apart. As the reaper swung the scythe, the grain fell 
against the fingers and could be laid in long rows 
upon the ground. This was necessary in order that the 
stalks might easily be gathered into sheaves with the 
heads of grain all at one end where they could be 
pounded out and separated from the straw and the 
chaif. It took a good " cradler " to cut two acres or 
more of grain in a day. 

Obed Hussey. Nobody knows just who first thought 
of a machine drawn by horses to cut grain. It is cer- 
tain, however, that Obed Hussey, a Maryland black- 
smith, invented a successful reaper in 1833. 

The McCormick Reaper. About the same time a 
farmer and machinist in Pennsylvania, Cyrus McCor- 
mick, was working on the same device. His farmer 



2l8 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

father was an ingenious man with tools and had in- 
vented a number of farm implements. Indeed, the 
elder McCormick made a reaped, but it was not a 
success. 

In 1 83 1, when he was twenty-two years old, Cyrus 
began to work over his father's discarded machine. 
At the end of three years he had built one that would 
cut grain and he took out a patent. He then devoted 
all his time to making reapers, turning them out by 
hand in his blacksmith shop. 

After a few years, McCormick moved to Cincinnati. 
Later he built a shop at Chicago, which grew into one 
of the greatest factories in the world. From year to 
year improvements were made in the reaper. When 
he died, in 1882, his business had spread to the four 
corners of the earth. 

III. The Sewing Machine 

Elias Howe. While Cyrus McCormick was building 
his shop, another inventor, Elias Howe, far away in 
New England, patented a sewing machine. Like 
Whitney and McCormick, Howe had been brought 
up in the midst of tools and machinery. His father 
was a farmer and a miller at Spencer, Massachusetts. 

Young Howe, born in 18 19, began working with his 
father as soon as he was old enough to swing a hammer. 
At the age of sixteen, after a few winters at a district 
school, Howe entered a factory at Lowell as a mechanic. 



MAKING AN INDUSTRIAL NATION 



219 



There he became acquainted with the very compHcated 
machinery for spinning cotton. From Lowell he drifted 
to Boston, where he experimented with a sewing ma- 
chine that could be 
driven by hand or 
some other kind 
of power. 

The Hardships 
of Howe. In all 
the annals of hard- 
ship, poverty, and 
endless toil, there 
is no story more 
pathetic than that 
of Elias Howe. 
Day and night in 
his spare time, he 
hammered, sawed, 
and filed in his 
garret, shaping the 
pieces of his ma- 
chine. By 1845 he 
had succeeded in 
making a crude affair that would sew. The next year 
it was patented. Practical men in Boston laughed at 
his machine and he went to England thinking he might 
find aid there. Failure dogged his steps, even when 
he was across the sea, and he returned home poverty- 
stricken. 




Elias Howe, Who Persevered through Years 
OF Failure until He Invented a Practical 
Sewing Machine 



220 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

Still no one would help. To make things worse, 
attempts were made to wrest his patent from him. Hav- 
ing no money, he was forced to go to work again as a 
machinist to make a living. 

Success at Last. Finally, in 1854, his rights as the 
inventor of the sewing machine were recognized and 
capital was raised to build a factory in which to 
manufacture it. Once started on the way, Howe's 
success was remarkable. His sewing machines were 
in great demand. He could hardly make them fast 
enough. The poor inventor, who had spent so many 
years in a garret, became a rich man. On the opening 
of the Civil War, Howe, a loyal unionist, joined the 
army as a private. When money did not arrive on 
time to pay the men in his regiment, he advanced it 
out of his own fortune. He died in 1867, one of the 
leading inventors and business men of the country. 

The cotton gin, coupled with the spinning machine 
and the loom, made the great textile industry. The 
sewing machine revolutionized sewing in the homes 
and created the clothing industry. The reaper trans- 
formed the fields of America into a granary for the 
industrial cities. 

IV. Steam and Transportation 

The Steam Engine. While the Revolutionary War 
was being fought, a young man, James Watt, was be- 
ginning an Industrial Revolution by the manufacture 



MAKING AN INDUSTRIAL NATION 221 

of steam engines in Birmingham, England. In a few 
years his giant machines were thundering in the factory 
towns all over England. A revolution in the ways of 
working and living had begun. 

Three Uses for Steam. As soon as ingenious men 
learned of the steam engine, they thought of three im- 
portant ways of using it. The first was to use it to 
turn wheels in factories. The second was to make it 
drive the paddles of a boat. The third was to employ 
it in driving the wheels of wagons. The first was easy 
enough. For a long time machinery had been run by 
water power ; all that was necessar>^ now was to hitch 
the steam engine, in place of the water wheel, to ma- 
chinery^ in mills. 

John Fitch and the Steamboat. The second task, 
using steam to drive boats, was more difficult. Men 
worked at it for a long time. Among them was John 
Fitch, who made a steamboat that would run and tried 
It on a pond in New York City. He also launched 
a steamboat on the Delaware in 1787. He had much 
trouble in getting help and became so discouraged that 
he took his own life. 

Robert Fulton. The honor of making the steam- 
boat a business success belongs to Robert Fulton. He 
was born in Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, in the 
year that Watt began to make steam engines. Though 
his father died when he was a child, his mother was able 
to give him a common school education. At the age 
of seventeen he had to think of taking care of himself 



222 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

and his mother too. So he went to Philadelphia, where 
he made a success in painting miniatures, or small 
portraits, which were much in demand before the days 
of the photograph. In a few years he was able to buy 
a little farm for his mother and went to London to study. 

Fulton's Friends Abroad. In addition to his 
love for painting, Fulton had a deep interest in ma- 
chinery of all kinds. While in England he met the Duke 
of Bridgewater, a great English engineer and canal 
builder, and also the Earl of Stanhope, who was at 
work on a scheme for applying steam to navigation. 
On visiting the factory of James Watt, who was build- 
ing engines in Birmingham, his interest in steam power 
deepened. A new age of engineering was opening and 
he was inspired to turn from painting to mechanics. 

Fulton began to study navigation and engines. He 
made several inventions and went to France to secure 
help in manufacturing them. He tried to interest 
Napoleon in some of his ideas and also sought aid 
from the Dutch and the English. 

Robert Livingston. Help came at last when Fulton 
met Robert Livingston, the American ambassador at 
Paris. Livingston was a man of wealth and influence. 
It was he who really managed the Louisiana purchase. 
Always ready to consider new ideas, he listened to 
Fulton and finally agreed to help him experiment in 
America. 

Fulton and the Clermont. As early as 1798 Living- 
ston had secured from the legislature of New York the 



MAKING AN INDUSTRIAL NATION 



223 



right to run steamboats on the Hudson. This shows 
that he was already interested in the matter. He had 
agreed to put a twenty-ton boat on the river and to 
run it four miles an hour by steam. He was glad to 
have the help of Fulton. 




© Brown Bros, New York. 

The "Clermont," First Successful Steamboat 
From a model built for the Hudson-Fulton celebration in New York in 1909 

Fulton's first effort to make his boat run at that 
speed failed. Finally in 1806 he brought over from 
England one of the steam engines made in Watt's 
factory at Birmingham. The next year he launched 
the Clermont, which ran five miles an hour and made 
a famous voyage from New York to Albany and back. 



224 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

Fulton then built bigger and faster boats. In a short 
time he had them on the Mississippi and Ohio rivers. 
During the war of 1812 he built floating batteries for 
coast defense and a warship driven by steam. When 
he died, in 1815, he was at work on a submarine. 

De Witt Clinton, the Canal Builder. Some of the 
leaders in American industry have been poor men who 
worked up through poverty and hardship. Others 
have been men of wealth and influence who devoted 
themselves to work rather than to pleasure. Among 
the latter was De Witt Clinton, the canal builder. 
He was of Scotch, Irish, French, and Dutch descent. 
His family had means and he enjoyed exceptional op- 
portunities for education. He attended an academy 
at Kingston, New York, and completed his course at 
Columbia College in 1786, at the age of seventeen. 

Clinton early took an interest in politics. He served 
in many public offices as mayor of New York City, state 
senator, member of the state legislature, and governor 
of the state. He married Maria Franklin, who brought 
him a fortune, so that he was able to give his time to 
public affairs. 

The Problem of Transportation. Clinton was en- 
gaged in farming on a large scale and was interested 
in industry as well. He saw that one of the problems 
of his age was cheap transportation, especially between 
the East and the West. "How can we get the wheat 
and corn of Ohio and Indiana across the vast distance 
to New York and send back bulky manufactures in 



MAKING AN INDUSTRIAL NATION 



225 



exchange ? " This question was on his mind before he 
was very old. Sometime, we do not know just when, 
he made a great decision. He decided that a canal 
must be built from Lake Erie to the Hudson. Men 
had talked of this for a hundred years. Clinton de- 
termined to see the work done. 

The Great Canal. Clinton induced the legislature 
to vote money for the enterprise. On July 4, 1817, he 
broke with his own hands the first ground for the canal. 




A Passenger Boat on the Erie Canal in 1825 

For eight years the work went on. It was far more 
difficult than digging the Panama Canal, but it was 
carried through. Men laughed at Clinton and called 
the canal " Clinton's big ditch," and " Clinton's folly." 
He paid no attention to jeers and lived to laugh at 
those who had laughed at him. In 1825 the canal was 
completed, and a triumphal journey was made from Lake 
Erie to New York City. 

Passenger as well as freight boats were built. It 
was slow travel to be sure, but three or four miles an 

Q 



226 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



1ZFHSB8 FAST LZITS. 




OFFICE. 

F^r Philadelpha and Pittsburg, tttuntcd ntar 

Iht Ihpot. Snrtit Queen Sirert. Lancaster, 

Twu dooTi South of Chamberlin'i 

Hotel 

TniS LINK. (» of acknowledged tpeH Be. 
coninnendalions have been g'ven by «S« 
most rornpeten« judges, in relation 'o its manj 
mdvaptxges 1 he extreme neatness of 



THE BOATS 




The comfort »nd adaptation of the 

STAGES 




»iT not to be surpassed by »n\ ihin;^ on the route. 
The Fare w^ill Kr as low *> itiii of any of ihe 
other lines, and (he aprents will he reaily arid 
willi^ig (c roiirtuce to the comfort of ibc paasen> 
Bers. sef that their l>aggajre is srnctlv taken care 
of. and look to every nrr^ngertieni necessary to 
their accommodation The Porter, who is known 
It' he obliging, will convey bajjgage 'o anv jiart 
«f Ihe cily for those who <lesire nQThe under* 
••Rneil Afent will endeavor to add «» \Uf com» 
fort of vbosc wttp m»yf patronise tJif tipreM 



hour in reasonable com- 
fort and.safety was better 
than horseback riding 
through swamps and wil- 
dernesses. Each passen- 
ger boat was equipped 
with berths and a dining 
room. On fair days the 
passengers rode on top of 
the boat. On rainy days 
they were crowded into 
the small cabins. 

Soon long fleets of 
freight and passenger 
boats floated east and 
west through the canal. 
Flourishing cities sprang 
up along the way. The 
merchants of New York 
found their trade growing 
rapidly. Indeed, the mer- 
chants of Philadelphia 
began to lose trade, and 
so Pennsylvania also had 
to find some way to get 
goods cheaply to and 
from the new western 

Advertisement for a Fast Express 
Line, Dated May 30, 1837 



MAKING AN INDUSTRIAL NATION 



227 



States ; canals were built as far as the mountains, and 
ingenious methods were worked out for getting the goods 
and sometimes even the boats themselves across to the 
western rivers. Before Clinton died, in 1828, he knew 
that the future trade, agriculture, and industry of the 
Lake Region and the Ohio Valley were secure. 

The Canal and the Railway. The very year of Clin- 
ton's death, the first important railway line in America 




A Railway Train of 183 i, Named "The De Witt Clinton," in Honor of the 
Builder of the Erie Canal 



was begun — the beginning of the Baltimore and Ohio 
Railroad. The use of steam for driving cars was soon 
adopted. The honor of this practical achievement be- 
longs to English inventors. Nevertheless, French and 
American engineers were busy on the problem for many 
years before the English genius, George Stephenson, built 



228 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

his locomotive " Puffing Billy." John Stevens, of Ho- 
boken, New Jersey, for example, had applied steam to 
driving a boat and, in 1812, printed a pamphlet on 
the use of steam for hauling wagon trains. 

American machinists made wonderful improvements 
in the locomotive and wrought extraordinary engineer- 
ing feats in constructing railroad lines aqross rivers, 
deserts, and mountains. There is a romance of railroad 
building that can be read in many books. 

V. The Telegraph 

Samuel Morse and the Electric Telegraph. Another 
clever inventor was Samuel Morse, born in Massachu- 
setts in 1791. He was to perform the miracle of " bring- 
ing the ends of the earth together." His father, a 
minister, believed in education for boys. So Samuel 
attended the local schools and Yale College. He be- 
came a successful painter and went to Europe to study 
under great masters. 

Early Experiments in Electricity. Before he returned 
to America he learned about the wonderful work being 
done in electricity, especially by the French and Italians. 
The battery for making electricity by chemicals had 
been invented. Men knew how to send electric cur- 
rents from batteries along copper wires. They could 
start and stop the current at pleasure. Morse was 
on his way home when the idea came to him of an 
alphabet of signs to be sent along wires by electric 
current. 



MAKING AN INDUSTRIAL NATION 



229 



Morse's Battle with Poverty. On his arrival in 
America, Morse began to work out his idea. He had a 
hard struggle against poverty. Fortunately he found 
a friend, Alfred Vail, who could borrow some money 
and was a good mechanic besides. The two went 
to work with might and 
main. In 1837 they had 
perfected a crude machine 
that sent a message over 
three miles of wire. A 
patent was immediately 
taken out. 

Government Aid for 
Morse. The trials of the 
inventor were not over 
when the patent was 
granted. It took a large 
sum of money to build a 
line between cities. The 
copper wire of that day 
was soft and broke easily. 
The wind blew the poles 
down. Hunters took de- 
light in shooting at the glass knobs used to insulate 
the wire. All together, building a telegraph line was an 
arduous task. 

Morse kept up his interest in spite of failures. He 
taught school to make a living. His spare time he 
spent in perfecting his instrument and showing it to 




Samuel F. B. Morse, Inventor of the 
Electric Telegraph 



230 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

people with money to invest. Finally, he went to Con- 
gress and asked for a grant of money to build a line be- 
tween Washington and Baltimore. He set up his in- 
struments in the Capitol and proved to Congressmen 
that he could send messages. Day after day he pa- 
tiently explained his ideas to inquirers and listened to 
cruel jokes made by people who thought him foolish. 
He was in utter despair early in March, 1843, because 

• •« •« •• * •• • 9 • * * •'^•t % •••• • ^^ 

'^v ■ "M •^•^ ••• • • iW • •• ••••« •• VHP • « • 

By permission of the publishers, Houghton Mifflin Company. 
Rough Drawing of the Alphabet by Morse 
From " Samuel F. B. Morse, Letters and Journals." 

Congress was about to adjourn without helping him. 
He had no money to pay his board bill and he knew 
not where to turn next. 

Help Finally Comes. Suddenly, almost at the last 
moment. Congress decided to make the experiment, 
granting Morse $30,000. He built his line to Balti- 
more at once, and the next year, when it was opened, It 
proved to be an immediate success. 

Though fame and fortune came to him, Morse con- 
tinued to work hard at improvements until his death, 



MAKING AN INDUSTRIAL NATION 23 1 

in 1872. The great cities of the United States were 
linked by wire. By that time also the important coun- 
tries of Europe were using his system. 

America was to be a great industrial nation. Many 
kinds of machines were turning out goods with light- 
ning speed. Railroads spanned the continent. Mes- 
sages sped from the Pacific to the Atlantic and under 
the sea to Europe. Hamilton's idea of an industrial 
nation was being realized. 

Questions and Exercises 

What are some important differences between countries that are 
chiefly agricuhural and countries that are chiefly manufacturing 
or industrial ? Name a country that is to-day chiefly agricultural ; 
one that is chiefly industrial. Which of the two kinds of countries 
is likely to have the more people in proportion to its size ^ Which 
will be likely to have the larger cities ? What is meant by capital 
and why is it important in building up industries ? What are the 
"raw materials" of an industry? What are the raw materials of 
boot and shoe factories ? Of cotton mills ? Of woolen mills r 
Of steel plants ? What are some of the manufacturing industries 
of your town or city ? What raw materials do they use and where 
do they get them .'' 

I. Before the invention of the cotton gin, cotton cloth was ex- 
pensive and scarce; from what kinds of cloth was clothing chiefly 
made in those days ? What did the invention of the cotton gin do 
besides making cotton cloth much cheaper than any kind of cloth 
had been before ? What machines in addition to the cotton gin 
were necessary in order that cotton cloth might be made cheaply .'' 

II. Why was it more difficult in the old days to gather a crop 
of wheat than to gather a crop of hay ? What was the difference 
between a scythe and a "scythe and cradle".'' What is the dif- 



232 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

ference between a mowing machine and a reaper ? The reapers 
used nowadays are usually called harvesters or "self-binders": 
do you know what work they do that still had to be done by hand 
even after McCormick had invented the reaper ? What kind of 
farms are better fitted for the use of machines like the reaper, — 
the hill farms of the Eastern states or the prairie farms of the Mid- 
dle West ? Can you think of any way in which the invention of 
the reaper may have helped the growth of states like Ohio, Indiana, 
and Illinois ? What states has the invention of the cotton gin 
chiefly helped ? 

III. What workers were chiefly helped by the invention of the 
sewing machine ? If there is a sewing machine in your home, 
watch it and describe how it works. Before the invention of the 
sewing machine, although cloth was made in mills, clothing was 
made either in the home or in small shops. Where is most of the 
clothing that you wear made to-day ? Elias Howe worked first 
in a factory at Lowell, Massachusetts ; find out from your geog- 
raphy something about this city. 

IV. What kinds of power does man use to help him in his work 
besides steam power ? What kinds of power were used before 
steam power was developed .'' What kinds of power have been 
developed since the invention of the steam engine ? There are 
three important kinds of steam engines : the stationary engine, 
the locomotive, and the marine engine; can you tell what each 
kind is used for ^ Why is the name of Robert Fulton better re- 
membered than that of John Fitch ? What did Robert Livingston 
do to help develop steam navigation ^ Can you think of any ways 
in which the development of the steamboat helped the new western 
states ? The steamboat was used successfully on rivers and in 
sheltered harbors long before the ocean-going steamship was de- 
veloped ; can you think of any reasons for the later development 
of steam navigation on the ocean ? What is a canal f Trace the 
route of the Erie Canal. Why was its completion so important to 
the states along the Great Lakes ? Why was it so important to 



MAKING AN INDUSTRIAL NATION 233 

New York City ? This and many other canals are not so much 
used to-day as they were soon after they were built ; can you think 
of any reason for the decreased importance of canals ? What 
canals do you know about that are very important to-day ? What 
is the difference between these canals and the Erie Canal ? At 
about what time did the development of railroads begin ? What 
are some of the advantages of rail transportation as comp-ared with 
canal transportation ? 

V. What is meant by the statement that the telegraph "brings 
the ends of the earth together " ? The fact that a copper wire 
could carry an electric current had been discovered before Morse's 
time ; what was the important thing that Morse did to make the 
telegraph possible ? 

Suggestions for Reading 

South worth's Builders of Our Country, pp. 122-127 (Whitney 
and Howe), pp. 128-134 (Fulton), pp. 135-139 (Stephenson), 
pp. 176-179 (Clinton), pp. 180-183 (Morse); Gordy's American 
Leaders and Heroes, pp. 217-253 (Fulton), pp. 273-283 (Morse); 
Stone and Fickett's Days and Deeds a Hundred Years Ago, pp. 78- 
93 (Fulton), pp. 94-102 (a canal journey), pp. 1 12-120 (an early 
railroad), pp. 121-130 (the telegraph) ; W. A. and A. M. Mowry's 
American Inventions and Inventors, pp. 144-177 (textiles and cloth- 
ing industries), pp. 178-184 (the steam engine), pp. 1 16-123 
(harvesters), pp. 206-214 (the steamboat), pp. 215-222 (canals), 
pp. 223-228 (the railroad) ; A. P. Brigham's From Trail to Rail- 
way, Ch. iv (the Erie Canal) ; Coffin's Building the Nation, pp. 238- 
242 (the Erie Canal), pp. 69-77 (Watt, Fitch, Whitney), pp. 140- 
141 (Fulton), pp. 433-434 (Morse). 

To BE Read to Pupils 

Hart's Source Readers of American History, No. 3, How Our 
Grandfathers Lived, pp. 99-102 (an early steamboat), pp. 102-104 
(a canal trip). 



2 34 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

Problems for Further Study 

How could you have traveled from New York City to Detroit 
about the year 1832? Imagine yourself making such a journey 
and tell what you would have seen and done on the journey ; 
give this description in class, and see whether your classmates will 
"catch" you by proving that one could not do certain things or 
see certain things in those early days. Which of the men that 
you have read about in this chapter do you admire the most and 
why ? Which of them do you think did the most for the world ? 



CHAPTER XIII 

WINNING TEXAS AND CALIFORNIA 

The Problem : the Fate of the Southwest. Among 
the close friends of Andrew Jackson was a man very 
much like him from the same state, Sam Houston. 
He was to play a part in winning the Southwest, some- 
what like Jackson's part in winning Florida. Houston 
was also a son of the frontier. His widowed mother 
with eight children had gone from her old home in Vir- 
ginia to settle on the banks of the Tennessee River. 
Across that river dwelt a tribe of Indians known as 
Cherokees. They were a great attraction to the boy 
Sam. He knew them well and was a favorite among 
" the braves. " While a mere lad he ran away from 
home to live with them. When his brothers found 
him and begged him to come back home to work in a 
country store, he cried, " I would rather measure deer 
tracks than tape." He never went back to tape, but 
he did manage to get a " bit of schooling, off and on." 

When the war of 1812 opened, he enlisted though he 
was only eighteen years old. He was soon fighting 
Indians in Alabama under Jackson. His bravery at- 
tracted the attention of the General and the two men 
became comrades in war and peace. After the fighting 

23s 



236 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



was over, Houston served for a time as a government 
agent among his old friends, the Cherokees. Then 
he began to practice law at Lebanon, Tennessee, and 
rose rapidly to fame and fortune. He was elected to 

Congress and after- 
ward chosen governor. 
Suddenly and 
strangely he broke 
away from wife and 
friends and went far 
away to the Arkansas 
River to live again 
with the Cherokee 
Indians. He became 
their chief and their 
champion in dealing 
with the government 
at Washington. 

Frontiersmen on 
the Mexican Borders. 
When Sam Houston 
arrived on the banks 
of the Arkansas, all 
the vast stretch of 
land between the old 
Louisiana purchase line and the Pacific Ocean, except 
the Oregon country, belonged to Mexico. Only a few 
years before, the Mexicans had won their independence 
from Spain. 




Sam Houston, One of the Leaders in 
Establishing the Independence of 
Texas and a Leader in the State 
After It was Admitted to the Amer- 
ican Union 



WINNING TEXAS AND CALIFORNIA 



237 



The great Southwest was almost without population. 
Dotted here and there from San Antonio, Texas, to San 
Diego and San Francisco were old Spanish missions. 
They were the outposts of Christianity. Some of them 




Houston's House in Houston, Texas 
From "Sam Houston," Courtesy of George S. Bryan 

had been founded before the Pilgrims landed at Plym- 
outh. 

The white population, which centered mainly about 
the missions, amounted to only a few thousand people. 
The wide deserts and plains of the great Southwest 



238 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

were inhabited in places by Indian tribes like the Hopis 
and the Comanches. 

Up to the eastern border of this great Mexican 
territory had come the American frontiersmen in their 
search for new homes. Louisiana planters with their 
armies of slaves had cleared the forest and cane- 
brake all the way to the Sabine River. Beyond the 
river lay Texas, sparsely settled and inviting to 
American settlers in their endless quest for rich 
lands. 

The Westward March of American Civilization. 
Over a vast stretch of almost uninhabited land flew 
the Mexican flag. The fertile soil lay unused. On the 
eastern side of the line was a people full of enterprise 
and industry, eager to settle on plain and desert, to 
cover the region with farms and cities, and to hunt for 
precious minerals in the deep valleys and in the rocky 
mountain ranges. Were the Americans to wait until 
the Mexicans filled up the country and developed it, 
or were they to do the work themselves ^ 

I. Texas and the Mexican War 

Moses Austin. Among the Americans who under- 
stood the value of Texas lands was a shrewd Yankee 
from Connecticut, Moses Austin. He had roamed 
over the country in search of adventure and in Mis- 
souri he had heard of the fertile lands in Texas. He was 
seized with the idea of founding a colony there. So he 
traveled all the way to Mexico City and by clever deal- 



WINNING TEXAS AND CALIFORNIA 



239 



ing secured from the Mexican government a huge grant 
of territory in central Texas. 

Moses Austin died before he could start settlements, 
but his son, Stephen, took up the work. In 1821 the 
son established the colony planned by the father on the 
site of the present city of 
Austin. As soon as the be- 
ginning was made, Americans 
fairly thronged into Texas. 
Some were free farmers look- 
ing for homes ; others were 
slave owners looking for 
plantations ; still others were 
adventurers looking for ex- 
citement. Little dreaming 
what was in store for it, the 
Mexican government wel- 
comed the newcomers. 

Americans Clash with the 
Mexicans. Before ten years 
had passed, trouble arose. 
The Mexican government 
abolished slavery throughout the country. This was 
a blow at the property of the planters in Texas. In 
1830 came a Mexican order forbidding any more 
Americans to enter Texas. These two steps were 
taken without consulting the twenty thousand or more 
Americans already there. They resented these decrees 
and began to talk about resistance to " foreign rule." 




Stephen Austin, Who Estab- 
lished THE Colony Which has 
Grown to be the City of 
Austin, Texas 



240 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

Sam Houston on the Scene. Just at this time, Sam 
Houston, the man who preferred deer tracks to tape, 
appeared on the scene. He had been sent by President 
Jackson to look after some Indian aifairs in the South- 
west and was so pleased with Texas that he decided 
to settle there. He was already famous when he ar- 
rived. " Two things will draw a crowd in Texas — a 
circus and Sam Houston," was a common saying. 

Some spoke of him as a " curious freak," on account 
of his strange dress — half civilized and half Indian. 
None denied that he was a man of unusual force. 
Though of little education, he had read widely by 
himself and had learned to speak and write simply 
and clearly. He was a valiant soldier and a loyal com- 
rade. One who knew him well described him as " frank, 
generous, and brave, ready to do or to suffer whatever 
the obligations of civil or military duty imposed." On 
account of his reputation as a soldier and leader, the 
Americans in Texas selected him to organize their army. 

The Independence of Texas. In 1836 the Amer- 
ican settlers, aided by a few Mexicans, declared the in- 
dependence of Texas. Angered by this, the President 
of Mexico, Santa Ana, put himself at the head of a large 
force and moved against the " rebels." He overcame 
and completely destroyed the American garrison at the 
Alamo, an old mission at San Antonio. This made it 
clear that a war to the bitter end was at hand. 

The triumph of Santa Ana was short lived. On 
April 21,1836, he was utterly defeated by General Hous- 



WINNING TEXAS AND CALIFORNIA 



241 



ton at San Jacinto and taken a prisoner of war. The 
Texans had made good on the field of battle their decla- 
ration of independence. The question before them was : 
" What is to become of our state now that we are free 
from Mexico ? " 

Houston as President. The Texans hoped to be 
annexed as a state to the American union. Mean- 




The Alamo, the Spanish Mission Where the American Garrison was 

Destroyed 



while they drew up a constitution of their own and 
elected Houston president. He held that office except 
for a short time until 1845, when Texas became one of 
the United States. 

Houston's Later Days. Houston was then once 
more a citizen of his native land and he soon appeared 
in Washington as a senator from the new state. There 



242 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

he was a strange figure. He insisted on wearing a 
frontier garb very much like that of an Indian. His 
queer tiger skin vest and his Mexican blanket were 
among the curiosities always pointed out to visitors at 
the Capital. He disliked long speeches. Like an In- 
dian, he grumbled and muttered whenever he was tired 
of hearing a senator talk. He carried his knife and 
a piece of wood around with him wherever he went, 
even into the Senate, and passed the time whittling. 
In his later years Houston was again the proud 
Governor of Texas and vigorously insisted that the 
state should remain in the Union forever. 

War with Mexico. The Mexican government was, 
naturally enough, very bitter over the independence 
of Texas. It warned the United States that annexa- 
tion would be viewed as a cause of war. Soon after 
annexation, Mexican troops began to assemble on the 
banks of the Rio Grande. A dispute arose over the 
boundary between Texas and Mexico. Then came a 
clash of arms in 1845. 

Within two years American troops were victorious 
everywhere. General Zachary Taylor defeated the 
Mexicans at Palo Alto, Resaca de la Palma, and Buena 
Vista. General Winfield Scott drove his way into the 
heart of Mexico, capturing the very Capital of the 
country. In 1848 the war was closed by a treaty. 

In this way the problem that confronted the men of 
Sam Houston's day was solved. Territory embracing 
Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona (later including the 



WINNING TEXAS AND CALIFORNIA 



243 



Gadsden purchase of 1853), California, Nevada, Utah, 
and part of Colorado was added to the United States. 
The mission bells at Santa Fe, Tucson, and San Diego 
rang as usual. The Navajo Indians wove their 



Santa Barbara ■4- 




»LE Of MILES 
100 200 300 400 500 



WM.E«g.Co..N.f, 



Both Mexico and Texas claimed the territory which is lightly shaded in this map, be- 
tween the Nueces River and the line running northward and the Rio Grande River. 



244 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



blankets. The Hopi Indians made their pottery. 
The cattle around the old Spanish posts grazed under 
the summer sun. But in a little while American enter- 
prise was to bring new life to the country. 

11. California and John C. Fremont 

A Messenger to Fremont. One day in 1846, as 
the controversy with Mexico opened, a lieutenant in 

the Marine Corps of 
the United States was 
given an important 
mission to carry out 
in California. He was 
instructed to find in 
the upper valley of the 
Sacramento River a 
band of Americans 
headed by the famous 
explorer, John Charles 
Fremont, and tell him 
that the government 
at Washington was 
counting on him to look 
after American inter- 
ests on the Pacific coast. 
Fremont's Early Ex- 




JoHN Charles Fremont, One of the Great 
Explorers Who Broke the Path across 
THE Plain, Desert, and Mountains to 
the Pacific Ocean, and the First Sen- 
ator from the State of California 



plorations. The "Path- 
finder " to whom this message was brought, though yet 
a young man, was known as a daring explorer of west- 



WINNING TEXAS AND CALIFORNIA 245 

ern wilds. Fremont was of Southern origin. His 
birthplace was Savannah, Georgia, and he received his 
education at Charleston College. He early showed a 
liking for mathematics, and was employed by the 
government as an assistant in a surveying corps. 
Through his work in the Missouri country, he became 
deeply interested in schemes for exploring the Far West. 

A Senator Gives Aid. In 1841 fortune favored Fre- 
mont's plans for a westward trip. In that year he 
married the daughter of Senator Benton, of Missouri. 

Among all the influential members of Congress in 
Washington, there was no one more seriously concerned 
about the West than Benton. He was always thinking 
of exploration and settlement in the lands far beyond 
the Mississippi River. He was glad to help his son- 
in-law to realize his great ambition, and so he took 
the matter up with the government. 

To the Rockies. Within twelve months Fremont 
was put in charge of an expedition and ordered to 
explore the countr\' between the Missouri River and 
the Rockies along the Kansas and Platte rivers. 
This was the first of his great expeditions. He fol- 
lowed the North Fork of the Platte, journeyed through 
the South Pass of the Rockies, and planted the Ameri- 
can flag on a towering peak in Western Wyoming that 
now bears his name. On his return home, he had 
wonderful stories to tell. 

To the Pacific. The success of this enterprise made 
Fremont famous among the pathfinders. The next 



246 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

year he was sent out again, this time to explore the 
central route to the Pacific. For months he and his 
band wandered in the Great West. They penetrated 
Colorado and camped near the site of the present city 
of Denver. They visited the Oregon country and 
Vancouver. They crossed the Sierra Nevada into the 
Sacramento Valley. 

Their sufferings in the mountains were terrible. 
They had to break paths through snow fifteen or 
twenty feet deep. Mountain blizzards swirled around 
them. The food supplies ran low. Thirty-four of 
their sixty-seven horses died of exhaustion or were 
killed for food. For days the thermometer registered 
thirty-five degrees below zero. They were almost 
starved when they reached white settlements in the 
Sacramento Valley. Fortunately their return journe}^ 
was far easier. When Fremont arrived safely at his 
home in Independence, Missouri, he had traveled on 
horseback and on foot more than six thousand miles. 

Once More to California. Not yet satisfied with 
his work, Fremont made a third trip West. This 
time he reached California with comparative ease. 
As he was in Mexican territory, he applied to the com- 
manding officer for permission to explore " in the 
interest of science." His purpose, he said, was to find 
the shortest route across the country to the Pacific 
Ocean. The permission was courteously granted but 
soon withdrawn. News of trouble between Mexico 
and the United States had arrived. Fremont was 



WINNING TEXAS AND CALIFORNIA 



247 



slowly withdrawing into Oregon in 1846 when the 
lieutenant of the Marine Corps reached him and 
informed him that he was to look after American 
interests on the coast. 

To make sure that California might be secured for 
the Union, Commodores Sloat and Stockton of the 




Oregon was organized as a Territory in 1848; Utah was organized as a Territory in 1850; 
California was admitted to the Union a free state in 1850. 

American Navy and General Kearney of the Army were 
also each assigned by the government a task in the 
great plan for extending American rule to the Pacific 
coast. 



248 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

California in 1846. At that time, as we have seen, 
CaHfornia was a part of the Mexican republic. It had 
about five or six thousand inhabitants scattered over 
a vast territory. At many important points there were 
old Spanish missions which were the centers of tiny 
settlements of Mexicans and Indians. In some parts 
there were huge estates owned by Spanish ranchers 
who kept immense herds of grazing cattle. Up and 
down the coast plied American ships, most of them 
from Boston, trading groceries and hardware for hides, 
tallow, and furs. 

John A. Sutter. Among the great landowners of 
California was a former soldier from Switzerland, 
Captain John A. Sutter. In 1841 he had obtained 
from Mexico a large grant of land in the valley of the 
Sacramento. There he built a fort and raised grain 
and cattle. Besides farming he also carried on a fur 
trade with the Indians. Among his workmen were 
many Americans who had gone West seeking adven- 
ture. Indeed at every important place of trade 
Americans were to be found. There were several 
hundred of them in California, particularly in the 
north. 

The Independence of California. Hearing rumors 
of war, the Americans in the region about Sutter's 
fort took things into their own hands. On June 14, 
1846, some of them met at Sonoma, north of San Fran- 
cisco Bay, declared their independence, and raised 
a " lone star flag " with the picture of a bear rudely 



WINNING TEXAS AND CALIFORNIA 249 

painted on it. This was the origin of the " Bear 
Flag." Captain Sutter, who had not yet learned to 
use English correctly, exultantly wrote to a friend : 
*' What for progress California will make now ! " 
Sloat, Stockton, and Fremont aided the Americans 
in overthrowing Mexican rule in California. Two 




-(2/u5^^i^^ ^<3c^>vt^__ ■^Mjz.^ecc ^ _ 

co£i Mji -/^^^'^ " • ^ 

Part of a Page from the Journal of One of the Early California Settlers 
Noting the Discovery of Gold. It is Dated January 24, 1848. 

years later gold was discovered on Sutter's land, and 
the rush to California began. 

California a Free State. So pleased was Fremont 
with the country, that he finally made up his mind 
to cast his lot with California. He helped in framing 
a constitution for the state. He rejoiced that the peo- 
ple decided to exclude slavery and worked to secure 
the admission of California to the Union as a free 



25© A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

state. When that was accomphshed, in 1850, he be- 
came the first senator of the state in the Congress at 
Washington. 

Fremont received many other public honors. He 
was nominated by the Repubhcans as their first candi- 
date for President in 1856, but was defeated. He 
served as "an officer in the Civil War, and rallied to 
himself the support of the Far West. He later acted 
as governor of Arizona for many years. He died in 
New York in 1890. 

In the history of Western exploration and settlement, 
Fremont's name holds a high place. He achieved great 
things himself and gives us an example of thousands 
who explored, journeyed, and settled. 

There is an old saying : " Possession is nine points 
of the law." It was by taking possession of the South- 
west that Americans solved the problem of the fron- 
tier. Houston and Fremont were in the vanguard 
of the possessors and settlers. 

Questions and Exercises 

Point out on the map the parts of the United States that once 
belonged to Mexico. Name the states that now occupy this region. 
Find on the map San Antonio, Santa Fe, San Diego, San Francisco. 
Santa Fe was founded by the Spaniards in 1606; how long was 
this before the English settled at Jamestown.^ How long before 
the Plymouth colony was founded .'' 

I. Why was trouble likely to occur between the Americans in 
Texas and the Mexican government f Why, after securing its 
independence from Mexico, did the new republic of Texas wish to 



WINNING TEXAS AND CALIFORNIA 251 

become a part of the United States ? What led to the war with 
Mexico ? Find on the map the places where the battles mentioned 
in the text were fought. Locate the states that were later formed 
from the territory given up by Mexico at the end of the war. How 
did this war differ from the War of 1812 in the actual fighting.'' 
In the results to our country .? 

II. Find on the map the country explored by John C. Fremont, 
locating the Missouri, Kansas, and Platte rivers, Fremont Peak, 
the Sierra Nevada Mountains, and the Sacramento Valley. What 
was Fremont doing in California when the Mexican War broke 
out f How did California become independent of Mexico ? How 
did it happen that California, which had only a small population 
in 1845, had enough people to become a state in 1850 ? 

Suggestions for Reading 

Tappan's American Hero Stories, pp. 237-246 (Davy Crockett 
and the Alamo); Coffin's Building the Nation, Ch. xx (Texas), 
Chs. xxiii, xxiv (War with Mexico), Ch. xxv (California) ; W. C. 
Sprague's Davy Crockett (especially Chs. xiv, xvi) ; G. S. Bryan's 
Sam Houston. 

To BE Read to Pupils 

Roosevelt and Lodge's Hero Tales from American History, pp. 
173-181 (the Alamo) ; Whittier's poem, "Angels of Buena Vista." 

Problems for Further Study 

Some Americans believe that our country was unjust in going 
to war with Mexico in 1845 ; what reasons, do you think, would 
lead them to this conclusion ? In what ways did Fremont's 
explorations differ from those of Lewis and Clark ? 



CHAPTER XIV 

THE OVERLAND TRAIL — OREGON WON 

The Problem: How Can Oregon Be Won for the 
United States? In 1817 the New England poet, 
William Cullen Bryant, wrote of the Pacific North- 
west : 

The continuous woods 
Where rolls the Oregon and hears no sound 
Save his own dashings. 

This summed up American thought about that far 
country. It was merely a distant and lonely land. 
Though larger than New England, New York, and 
Pennsylvania combined, only a few men realized its 
importance as a home for civilized people. 

England and the United States both laid claim to 
it on the ground of early explorations. English fur 
traders knew something of its value. Americans who 
had built up a profitable fur business looked upon 
it as a " natural part of the United States " ; but 
members of Congress and most people in the East 
were indifferent. Many of them spoke contemptu- 
ously of "" a northwest iceberg " not worth bother- 
ing about, just as men a few years before had 
sneered at the Louisiana purchase. Even the gov- 

252 



THE OVERLAND TRAIL — OREGON WON 



253 



eminent of the United States had to be convinced 
that the Oregon country was worth striving for. 

How was Oregon to be won ? That was the prob- 
lem before men who understood the importance of 
the Northwest. It 
was answered first by 
the fur traders, then by 
the missionaries to the 
Indians, and finally 
by the permanent set- 
tlers who braved the 
long and wearisome 
journey overland. 

The Fur Traders — 
John Jacob Astor, 
Merchant and States- 
man. One of the first 
men in America to 
take a practical inter- 
est in the Oregon 
country was the great 
New York merchant, 
John Jacob Astor. He 
eagerly grasped at the 
information which 
Lewis and Clark brought back because he saw a fine 
chance for profit in furs. Two years after their return 
he organized the American Fur Company. At the same 
time he formed two plans for developing trade with 




John Jacob Astor, the Great New York 
Merchant, Who Helped to Open the 
Oregon Country by Establishing the 
American Fur Trade on the Pacific 
Coast 



254 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

Oregon. One was to establish a post at the mouth of 
the Columbia River. The other was to build a chain 
of trading centers along the route of Lewis and Clark 
from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean. 

In 1810 Astor sent a ship all the way around Cape 
Horn to the far Northwest country. The next year 
the vessel arrived safely at the mouth of the Columbia. 
After many exciting adventures, the company of men 
built a fort there which they named Astoria. They 
were delighted with the climate, soil, and foliage. One 
of them later declared : " We imagined ourselves in 
the Garden of Eden." 

Relations with England. They were not long to trade 
in the new country undisturbed. When war broke out 
with England, a British war vessel swooped down upon 
the harbor and Astoria had to surrender. In 1818 it 
was restored to the American founders. 

At that time England and the United States came 
to a temporary arrangement with regard to the whole 
Oregon country. They agreed that for ten years 
citizens of both countries should be free to settle and 
trade there. This was clearly a makeshift, for the 
question of ownership was left undecided. The agree- 
ment was renewed ten years later, once more post- 
poning the solution of the problem. On this occa- 
sion no term of years was fixed for the arrangement. 
In a few years American citizens began to pour into 
the Oregon country. British fur traders also came in 
large numbers and with them some Canadian settlers. 



THE OVERLAND TRAIL — OREGON WON 



255 



In the end the race for possession was won by 
Americans. 

The Missionaries. Among the first settlers were the 
missionaries to the Indians. About 183 1 the Indians 
on the Columbia 




River sent four of 
their chief men all 
the way to St, 
Louis to inquire 
about the Chris- 
tian faith. Only 
one of them lived 
to return and tell 
the story of the 
journey. 

An account of 
this Indian call for 
Christian help was 
soon published all 
through the East. 
It made a very 
strong appeal to 
all religious bod- 
ies. The Methodists, two years later, sent out Rev. 
Jason Lee, who arrived at Vancouver with a little party 
in the autumn of 1834 to carry on religious work 
among the Indians. Lee planted the first American 
colony in Oregon in the Willamette Valley, Soon the 
American Board of Foreign Missions took up the work. 



The Oregon Country 



256 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

One of their missionaries was Dr. Marcus Whitman, an 
earnest and pious man, who did much for the up- 
building of the country. From Canada came Catholic 
missionaries. So it happened that in a little while 
the northwestern wilderness beyond the mountains 
was dotted here and there with missions. Some of the 
pioneers went from the East by way of Cape Horn in 
sailing vessels. Others went overland across the plains 
and mountains. 

The Pioneer Settlers. The fame of Oregon as a 
" paradise for settlers " soon spread far and wide. Far- 
sighted men were making plans for migrations to the 
Northwest. In 1839 a band of fifty, under the leader- 
ship of an experienced missionary, went by ship around 
Cape Horn. Some of them settled near the present 
city of Salem. Three years later a small company of 
emigrants went overland. This time, also, a mission- 
ary guided the party across the mountains from Inde- 
pendence, Missouri. 

The First Great Migration. All sections of the 
country caught " the Oregon fever," as it was styled. 
In the spring of 1843 small parties of pioneers from 
Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, 
and Missouri gathered at Independence for a grand 
march into the Oregon country. They adopted rules 
for the management of the army of settlers and selected 
a pilot to lead them. In the company was Dr. Marcus 
Whitman, the experienced missionary who knew the 
way overland. 



THE OVERLAND TRAIL — OREGON WON 



257 




258 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

On May 22, 1843, all were ready for the start at 
Elm Grove, near Independence. " Elm Grove," 
wrote a member of the company, "stands on a wide, 
gently undulating prairie. The moon shed her sil- 
very beams on the white sheets of sixty wagons ; a 
thousand head of cattle grazed upon the surround- 
ing plain ; fifty campfires sent up their brilliant flames, 
and the sound of the sweet violin was heard in the 
tents. All was stir and excitement." 

A daily record of the long, weary trip was kept by 
one of the leaders and has come down to us. This jour- 
nal tells us how the emigrants broke camp, marched, 
and made camp day after day. 

Up for the Day. At four o'clock in the morning 
the sentinels on duty fire their rifles to arouse the 
sleepers. In a few minutes the emigrants pour out 
of tents and wagons. Fires are started to cook the 
breakfast. Sixty men corral the cattle and drive them 
together for the march. Some of the cows have 
wandered as far as two miles, but within an hour or 
two they are all, a thousand of them, close to the camp. 
By seven o'clock, breakfast has been eaten. The first 
platoon takes its place in front and the others fall In 
as it sweeps forward. In the very front are the pilot 
and his aids, all seasoned border men. 

" It is on the stroke of seven," writes our story 
teller ; " the rush to and fro, the crackling of whips, 
the loud commands to oxen . . . have ceased. For- 
tunately every one has been found and every teamster 



THE OVERLAND TRAIL — OREGON WON 259 

is at his post. The clear notes of a trumpet sound in 
front; the pilot and his guards mount their horses; 
the leading divisions of the wagons move out of the 
encampment and take up the line of march. The 
rest fall into their places with the precision of clock- 
work." 

The pilot, familiar with the route, fixes the speed 
of the wagons and horses. This enables him to ar- 
rive at the next grass and water place just at noon- 
time. On the midday stop, the wagons and cattle 
are kept close together, for the stay is short. The 
council has to meet to decide a dispute because the 
owner of a wagon and a young man with him are quar- 
reling. The owner claims that the young man agreed 
to do a man's work all the way for his bed and board. 
The young man objects to this. The council hears 
w^hat they have to say and decides the case. At one 
o'clock sharp the caravan crawls forward. The oxen 
move slowly along. The wagons creek and groan. 
Some of the drivers grow drowsy and fall asleep on their 
perches. Others are singing. The children play now 
in the wagons and now alongside the winding trail, 
keeping up easily with the drivers. 

Making the Night Camp. The sun hangs low in 
the western sky. Soon it will be down. The pilot 
has gone ahead and found a place for the camp. He 
marks a great circle and leads the wagons around 
until the first and the last are come together in a wide 
ring. So carefully has the pilot estimated the length 



26o A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

of the train that the last wagon just completes the 
circle. The wagons are pushed close to each other 
and fastened by heavy chains. Within ten minutes 
the teams and cattle are out at pasture. Fires are 
lighted within the barricade. Tents are pitched while 
supper is cooked. After the evening meal, there is 
some singing and violin music. At eight o'clock 
comes the command : " To bed." 

For ninety-eight days this routine goes on. Then 
the pioneers arrive in eastern Oregon, where the road 
ends. One-third of the journey is yet before them and 
it lies over rough pack trails. Undaunted, they send 
road makers ahead and keep on with the caravan. 
Dr. Whitman, who knows this part of the way very 
well, proves to be of great help to them. When they 
reach the Columbia they take to boats and rafts. By 
the end of November, they are in the Willamette Val- 
ley. Surely this is a journey worthy to be recorded in 
a book of American history that tells of Jamestown 
and Plymouth. 

The Oregon Compact. In the summer of 1843, 
before the great caravan arrived, the pioneers al- 
ready in the Oregon country met to consider the 
establishment of a government. A Fourth of July 
oration was delivered by a missionary. The next 
day a plan of government was agreed upon. " We, 
the people of Oregon territory," opens the agreement, 
" for the purposes of mutual protection and to secure 
peace and prosperity among ourselves, agree to adopt 



THE OVERLAND TRAIL — OREGON WON 261 

the following laws and regulations until such time as 
the United States of America extend their jurisdiction 
over us." Thus was formed another " compact,'* 
similar to the famous Mayflower Compact. Self- 
government had made its way across the Rocky Moun- 
tains. 

The Oregon Boundary Question. Other great cara- 
vans followed in the footsteps of the train of 1843. It 
was now clear that something would have to be done 
about the settlement of the line between British North 
America and the United States. Accordingly the 
Democrats in the presidential campaign of 1844 claimed 
all of Oregon far up the Pacific Coast to the parallel of 
54° 40' ! They said that this was all American terri- 
tory and they were prepared to fight for it. Such 
was the origin of the cry : " Fifty-four-forty or fight ! " 
President Polk In his inaugural address declared that 
our title to " the whole of Oregon was clear and un- 
questionable." Great Britain, on her part, claimed 
the coast down to the Columbia River. 

On both sides there was talk of war. The British 
government proposed a compromise ; namely, to make 
the forty-ninth parallel, Instead of 54° 40', the boundary 
all the way to the sea. This would give the British all 
of Vancouver Island. President Polk was puzzled. 
He had made strong claims to the whole of Oregon. 
Now he was called upon to give up a part of It or fight. 
He submitted the question to the United States Senate 
and asked its advice. The Senate favored the com- 



262 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 







^**^ 



'■nWilBlSi* .^attM?^''; 



The Last Page of the Treaty Which Closed the Controversy over Oregon 
BETWEEN Great Britain and the United States 

It is signed by James Buchanan, for the United States, and by Richard Pakenham, for 
the British government. 

promise and in 1846 a. treaty was concluded with Great 
Britain on that basis. 

After the settlement, Congress made Oregon a ter- 
ritory of the United States and the President appointed 
a governor for it. At Oregon City, on March 3, 1849, 
the territorial government was proclaimed. Ten years 
later Oregon was admitted as a state to the Union. 



THE OVERLAND TRAIL — OREGON WON 263 

Washington. While the country to the south of 
the Columbia River was filling up, pioneers were 
exploring the lands to the north. Far away, on Puget 
Sound, a tiny settlement of woodmen and shingle 
makers had been established as early as 1848. This 
was the beginning of the great lumber industry of the 
Northwest. After the discovery of gold in California 
during the next year, many ships were sent there for 
boards and shingles. In a little while coal was dis- 
covered. Farmers began to come to settle in the 
valleys back from the coast. As soon as a few thousand 
inhabitants were gathered in the region, they demanded 
a territorial government. In 1853 Congress granted it, 
naming the new territory Washington. 

The Oregon country was saved. The fur traders, 
the missionaries, and the pioneers had done their work. 
The Northwest was forever American. 

Questions and Exercises 

Find on the map the states of Oregon and Washington. How 
did it happen that the United States had a claim to this "Oregon 
country " ? Locate Astoria. Trace the route that Astor's ship 
took in going from New York to Astoria in 1 8 10. What route 
would a ship be likely to take to-day in going from New York to 
the mouth of the Columbia River ? Find from your geographies 
something about the climate of western Oregon and western 
Washington. Trace on the map the overland route from St. 
Louis to Astoria. Why is the name of Marcus Whitman remem- 
bered ? Find on the map the parallel 54° 40'. What parts of 
Canada would the United States now possess if this parallel 



264 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

had been made the northern boundary ? Find the 49th paralleL 
What is meant by a compromise ? Locate Vancouver Island 
and the Willamette Valley 

Suggestions for Reading 

Coffin's Building the Natio7i, ch. xxvi (Gray's voyage and Whit- 
man's journey) ; Hart's Source Readers of American History, No. 3, 
Hozv Our Grandfathers Lived, pp. 166-168 (incident on the trail)"; 
Guerber's Story of the Great Republic, pp. 113-117 (Marcus Whit- 
man) ; Mary Gay Humphrey's Missionary Explorers among Ameri- 
can Indians, pp. 121-183 (Marcus Whitman) ; Henrietta Christian 
Wright's Children's Stories of American Progress, pp. 268-278 (the 
settlement of the Northwest Territory). 

Problems for Further Study 

Why did the pioneers on their journey to the Oregon country 
place their wagons in a circle every night and pitch their tents 
within the circle .^ In what way, do you think, did these pioneers 
manage to get their wagons and their cattle across the rivers 
that they came to .'' 



CHAPTER XV 

SLAVERY 

The Problem : The Clash of Sections. One day, in 
1619, the settlers of the Httle colony of Jamestown, in 
Virginia, saw a strange ship at anchor in the harbor. 
It flew the Dutch flag and it proved to be a strange 
ship indeed. Its main cargo was composed of negroes 
whom the Dutch had bought or caught in Africa. 
The negroes were brought to land and sold at auction, 
for the planters were in dire need of help in tilling their 
broad fields. This was the little beginning of a mighty 
trafiic in human beings in the English colonies. 

At that time, slavery was not looked upon as evil. 
It had been in the world since the dawn of civilization. 
Indeed, in the earliest days of history slaves were 
toiling in the fields or building monuments to kings. 
Slavery did not exist in England in 1619, but English- 
men could lawfully trade in slaves. Twenty-two years 
later, the people of Massachusetts expressly declared 
that the slavery of Indians and negroes and the slave 
trade were lawful. Hundreds of New England ships 
entered the trade and helped to supply the colonies 
with black labor. 

Slavery Not Suited to Northern Climate. Slavery 
flourished only in the South, although it was lawful 



266 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

all through the North — in some states for a long time 
after the Declaration of Independence. It simply did 
not grow rapidly in the North because it was not 
adapted to small farming in a cold region. Things 
were different in the South. There the warm climate, 
to which African negroes were accustomed, and the 
great plantations made it highly profitable. So it took 
firm root and grew and grew till it spread from James- 
town to the waters of the Rio Grande. In the North 
it was gradually abolished. 

Slavery Makes Two Sections. Slavery served to 
make the difference between North and South more 
marked. The North turned to manufacturing and 
trade. White immigrants from Europe furnished labor 
for the mills, mines, and small farms. The South re- 
mained agricultural, for slaves could not be employed 
as easily in mechanical pursuits. They were thought 
useful mainly for housework and on the plantations. 
So the South produced cotton, tobacco, rice, hemp, 
sugar, and other products of the soil. Thus each of 
the two sections went on its way : one industrial ; the 
other agricultural. 

The Clash of the Two Sections. The South de- 
manded two important things. The first was the right 
to extend slavery into new territories. The second was 
the right to trade freely with European countries 
without the interference of tarifi's. The North on its 
part demanded tariffs to protect its manufacturing in- 
dustries. It also called for the exclusion of slavery from 



SLAVERY 267 

the territories. Some northerners even proposed that 
slavery should be abolished altogether and the slaves 
set free. 

How was the problem to be solved ? Could a conflict 
be avoided ? What views should good citizens take 
of the problem ^ To these perplexing questions, the 
greatest minds were devoted for many long years. 
Honestly, sincerely, the statesmen of America searched 
for the answers. 

I. Calhoun and the Southern View 

The Career of Calhoun. A powerful champion of 
the Southern cause was found in John C. Calhoun. 
The life of this great leader opened in the western 
part of South Carolina near the borders of Georgia. 
His ancestors had come from Ireland and settled on 
the frontier. His father was a zealous patriot dur- 
ing the Revolution, and from him young Calhoun 
acquired a deep devotion to America. 

The home in which the youth was reared was a 
comfortable one. His father was not a rich planter, 
but rather a well-to-do farmer who owned a few slaves. 
Until his eighteenth year, John spent his days on the 
farm. Often he worked in the fields with the men. 
He was prepared for college by a clergyman and 
entered Yale, graduating in 1804. He then studied 
law, a part of the time at Litchfield, Connecticut. 

On his return to South Carolina, Calhoun married 
a young woman of some fortune and thus did not have 



268 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



to earn a livelihood. In 1811 he began his long politi- 
cal career as a member of the House of Representatives. 
Nearly all the forty years that remained to him were 

spent in Washington. 
He was a leader in the 
war party that drove 
President Madison in- 
to the conflict with 
Great Britain. He 
served as Secretary of 
War under Monroe, as 
Vice President of the 
United States for one 
term and part of an- 
other, as a member of 
the Senate, as Secre- 
tary of State under 
President Tyler, and 
gave his last days to 
the defense of the 

John C. Calhoun, Statesman from South 

Carolina, Ardent Champion of the oOUtnem CaUSe aS a 
Southern Cause, and Defender of gg^ator from his na- 
Slavery 

tive state. 

Calhoun's View of Slavery. For twenty years and 
more the South Carolina leader wrestled with the 
slavery problem. In the course of time he came to 
four leading conclusions : 

I. That Slavery Was a Positive Good. Many men 
from the South had said that slavery was an evil. They 




SLAVERY 269 

accepted it as inevitable, but regretted that it existed. 
Calhoun took the contrary view. He was not prepared 
to defend an evil on any ground. That, he held, 
would be impossible. The South must therefore meet 
the charge that slavery was a sin. It must meet it 
by denying the truth of the statement. If this was 
not done, he said, " the ignorant, the weak, the young, 
and the thoughtless " in the North would in time 
oppose slavery. 

In a great speech in the Senate, on February 6, 1837, 
he set forth his views very clearly. The slave, he 
said, is better off in America than roaming the wilds 
of Africa, the prey of beasts and savage men. In 
every " civilized society . . . one portion of the com- 
munity . . . must live on the labor of the other." He 
even argued that the slave was better off than most free 
workingmen in Europe, for he did not have to work so 
hard and he was taken care of in his old age. " Com- 
pare his condition with the tenants of the poorhouses in 
the more civilized portions of Europe," exclaimed Cal- 
houn ; "look at the sick and old and infirm slave . . . 
under the kind, superintending care of his master and 
mistress ; and compare it with the forlorn and wretched 
condition of the pauper in the poorhouse ! " 

Since all this is true, he argued, slavery is not an 
evil, but "a good — a positive good." On this ground 
Calhoun believed that the South could stand firm. 

2. That Slavery Should Be Extended. Since Calhoun 
thought that slavery was a positive good, he felt that it 



270 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

should be extended. He, therefore, favored the annexa- 
tion of Texas. The war with Mexico in 1 845 brought new 
territories to the United States. Calhoun then quickly 
demanded that slavery should be allowed in them. On 
this he was firm. He stated four clear principles : 

a. The territories are the common property of all the 
states. 

h. The citizens of all states have an equal right to 
take their property into any territory. Property 
includes slaves. 

c. The Congress of the United States cannot prevent 
any citizen from taking his property, including slaves, 
into a territory. 

d. Congress can admit a state to the Union, but it 
cannot keep a state out of the Union because it per- 
mits slavery. 

3. Thai the South and North Should Be Balanced. 
Calhoun was anxious to keep the two sections of the 
nation evenly balanced. This could be done by having 
as many slave states as free states. The North thus 
might have ten times the population of the South and 
therefore more members in the House of Representa- 
tives ; but in the Senate the two parts of the Union 
would still be equal. The North could not then make 
laws which the South did not approve, because every 
law that is passed by Congress must have a majority 
vote of both the House of Representatives and the 
Senate. Only by keeping the balance even, Calhoun 
declared, could the Union be preserved. 



SLAVERY 271 

4. That a State Had the Right to Withdraw from the 
Union. On March 4, 1850, the Senate listened to the 
last speech by Calhoun, who was then near to death's 
door. His address was read by a friend, for he was too 
feeble to stand. The Senate chamber was as still as the 
grave. The dying man sat grim and silent, pale as 
marble. His well-known views on the nature of the 
Union were once more expounded : (i) The states were 
independent. (2) Because they were independent they 
were " sovereign," — that is, they did not have to obey 
laws made by anyone except themselves ; they could 
nullify federal laws if they chose to do so, (3) They 
could also lawfully withdraw from the Union. 

His conclusion was perfectly clear : If the trouble 
over the slavery problem does not stop, " the South 
will be forced to choose between abolition and seces- 
sion." The South will not abolish slavery, therefore 
the continued discussion of slavery will " end in dis- 
union." This was Calhoun's answer to the great and 
perplexing question. 

At the close of the famous speech, two friends led 
the sick man from the Senate chamber. On the last 
day of March the electric telegraph carried the news 
throughout the nation that the great champion from 
South Carolina had gone to his long home. 

n. The Answer of the Abolitionist 

William Lloyd Garrison. A direct and threatening 
challenge to Calhoun's doctrines came from a poor New 



272 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



England printer's boy, William Lloyd Garrison. De- 
nied a college education, this youth had been forced, 
when only fourteen years old, to make his own living 
as a printer's apprentice. While yet a youngster he 
became Interested in the slavery question. At the age 
of twenty-six he got possession of a printing press and 
some type and started a paper, called the Liberator, to 
wage war to the bitter end against slavery. With this 




The Heading of William Lloyd Garrison's Famous Abolition Paper, "The 

Liberator" 

paper he " shook the world." His ideas, like those of 
Calhoun, were clear, positive, and easily understood. 

No Toleration for Slavery. Garrison declared 
slavery to be a positive evil, a deadly sin. He de- 
manded that the slaves should be freed at once. He 
sharply criticized the Constitution of the United States 
because It permitted slavery. He exclaimed that It 
was a " covenant with death." He wanted " no union 
with slave owners." He denounced in severe language 
slavery, slave owners, and the defenders of slavery. He 
would listen to no proposals for delay. To him slavery 
was wicked and every man who tolerated It was wicked 
also. " I will not excuse — I will not retreat a single 



SLAVERY 273 

inch — and I will be heard." The opinions of other men, 
who advised milder methods, he scorned, condemned, 
and denounced. His motto might have been : " No 
toleration for slavery or its friends." 

Agitation Against Slavery. Garrison was careless 
about the effect of his work upon his own hfe. He be- 
lieved that he was right. He wanted to arouse the 
nation and he did not care how he did it. He was 
not long in gathering some of the fruits of his agitation. 
In 1835 a Boston mob, composed of some of the first 
citizens, broke into his office and practically wrecked it. 
A rope was thrown around Garrison himself, and he 
was dragged to jail. Perhaps only the prison bars 
saved him from a violent death. 

Slowly but surely his views spread. Attacks upon 
them and upon him did not check the agitation. In- 
deed, they seemed to be fuel on the fire. How many 
people ever came to share Garrison's extreme opinions 
we do not know. Perhaps not very many. A careful 
historian has declared that what appeared to be the 
methods of the abolitionists were heartily disliked by 
*' ninet3^-nine one hundredths of all the people of the 
North." It is certainly true that there never was an 
abolitionist party ; but tens of thousands came to be- 
lieve that slaver}^ was wrong. Harriet Beecher Stowe, 
in 1852, published her famous story. Uncle TonCs Cabin, 
which told about every side of slavery, including the 
worst. This book was read very widely in the North 
and had a great deal to do with convincing the people 



274 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

of the free states that slavery was an evil. John 
Brown, in 1859, made a raid into Virginia to free the 
slaves by force, but was caught and hanged. 

III. The Answer of Henry Clay — Compromises 

Compromise from a Border State. As was fitting, 
a man of compromise came from the state of Ken- 
tucky. This was a border state. It stood midway 
between the far North and the far South. It was 
a slave state, but not a cotton-planting state. It was 
dotted over with small farms tilled by men who owned 
them. Indeed there were only a few great estates 
with hundreds of slaves on them. The whole life of the 
state, therefore, did not depend upon slavery. There 
were men who sympathized with the free farmers of 
the North and disliked slavery. There were men who 
sympathized with the planters of the Gulf states and 
believed it necessary and good. 

Where the factions were so evenly balanced, moder- 
ate men refused to take extreme views. They did not 
like abolitionists. They did not like the hot advocates 
of slavery extension. It seemed to them that each side 
might well give up some of its extreme views and so 
come to an agreement or compromise which would 
enable the country to continue in peace. 

The Training of Henry Clay. It was in Kentucky 
that Henry Clay began the practice of law in 1797. He 
had come from Virginia, where he had lived until man- 
hood. His father, a poor clergyman, had died when 



SLAVERY 



275 



he was only four years old. His mother with a family 
of seven children and very little property gave him 
a scant education. 

A few months in each year he spent at a near-by coun- 
try school. It was a log cabin with a hard earthen floor. 
When not poring 
over his school- 
books, Henry was 
plowing the fields 
barefoot, or riding 
to the mill on his 
pony with corn to 
be ground. 

At the age of 
fourteen he was a 
counter boy in a 
small store in Rich- 
mond. There he 
diligently poured 
out molasses, meas- 
ured cloth, and ran 
errands. His spare 
hours were spent 
with books. His 
industr}^ attracted 
the attention of his 
neighbors, and soon he was given an opportunity to 
study law in the office of a distinguished attorney. In 
his twenty-first year he had his license to practice. 




Hexry Clay, from Kentucky, One of the 
Leaders in Arranging Three Historic Com- 
promises BETWEEN THE SoUTH AND THE NoRTH 



276 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

With this precious permit in his pocket, he went over 
the hills to Kentucky. 

The Kentucky Lawyer. Clay's rise to local fame 
was rapid. He was an eloquent and impassioned 
speaker who could sweep his hearers off their feet. At 
jury trials he was a great success. In a little while he 
was able to purchase an estate near Lexington, where 
he fixed his home for life. 

His practice was not limited to the rich who could 
easily aiford to pay for the services of a good lawyer. 
He had a generous heart. He helped widows and 
orphans. He aided slaves who sued for their freedom 
and defended runaway slaves who tried to escape from 
their masters. He soon learned to dislike slavery and 
attempted to convert the people of his state to " grad- 
ual emancipation." To the last, however, he believed 
that slavery could not be defended on moral grounds. 
He hoped against hope that it might some time be 
abolished by peaceful methods. 

Clay, the "War Hawk." In the closing days of 1806, 
Clay appeared on the floor of the United States Senate 
to take the oath of office as senator from Kentucky. 
He then lacked a few months of being thirty years 
old — the age required by the Constitution for member- 
ship in the Senate. From that time until his death, 
Clay was in Washington almost continuously. When 
he was not a member of the Senate or House of Repre- 
sentatives, he was a high officer in the federal govern- 
ment. 



SLAVERY 277 

Clay was in the House when the quarrel with Great 
Britain arose and sprang quickly into the fray. He 
called for war on " the old enemy." He demanded 
the conquest of Canada. He pictured a victorious 
army laying siege to Quebec and prophesied that the 
Americans would lay down terms of peace at Halifax. 
Though wrong in his prophecy, Clay forged to the front 
as a national leader during the War of 18 12. 

Clay's First Great Compromise — Missouri. On 
March 16, 181 8, the people of the territory of Missouri 
laid before Congress a petition asking to be admitted 
to the Union as a state. When Congress began to 
consider the petition the next year, a representative 
from New York moved that steps be taken to assure 
the gradual emancipation of the slaves in Missouri. 
This was a refusal to admit Missouri with slavery. 

The Southern View. Then came a heated debate 
over slavery. The South had anxiously watched the 
growth of the Northern states in wealth and population. 
Now the North proposed to exclude a new slave state 
from the Union. This, the Southern people thought, 
was the beginning of Northern rule. If Missouri was 
forced to give up slavery on entering the Union, other 
territories would be forced to give up slavery. In time 
the free states would outnumber and outweigh the slave 
states. This was the danger which Southern leaders 
saw in the proposal to abolish slavery in Missouri. 

The Anti-Slavery View. Sincere anti-slavery men saw 
in the situation a chance to make a beginning of 



278 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



emancipation. They thought that slavery could be 
restricted by this method to the old states where it 
already existed. The new states would be free states. 
In time most of the country would be free territory. 
Then slavery would gradually disappear even in the 




The Missouri Compromise 

older states. Such was the hope of men who sought to 
keep Missouri out of the Union as a slave state. 

The Compromise of 1820. The debate waxed hot. 
Angry speeches were made on both sides. The aged 
Jefferson at Monticello warned his countrymen that the 
Union was in mortal danger. In the Senate the South 
and North were equal ; and no state could be admitted 
without the approval of the Senate. In the House of 



SLAVERY 279 

Representatives, the North had more members ; and 
no slave state could be admitted without the approval 
of the House. The Senate would not admit Missouri 
without slavery and the House would not admit it with 
slavery. So the deadlock stood while the debate raged. 
Men talked of breaking up the Union. Just when a 
crash seemed at hand, a compromise was reached. It 
was arranged that Missouri should be admitted as a 
slave state. At the same time Maine was to be ad- 
mitted as a free state, thus keeping the free states and 
the slave states equal in number. It was also agreed 
that all the Louisiana Territory north of a certain line 
(the line of the southern boundary of Missouri) should 
be free territory. 

Clay and the Compromise. This " Missouri Com- 
promise " was not originally worked out by Henry 
Clay. He has been called the " father " of it, but 
he does not deserve the credit for the plan. He did, 
however, labor hard to get Congress to agree to it. 
He made eloquent speeches in favor of it. He visited 
members of Congress, buttonholed them, besieged 
them, and entreated them. Success at last crowned 
his efforts. The newspapers praised him as " the great 
peacemaker." 

Clay's Second Great Compromise. In 1832 South 
Carolina, as we have seen (p. 187), objected to the 
tariff acts passed by Congress. The citizens held a 
convention and declared that the acts were null and 
void and should not be obeyed. Thus a state defied 



28o A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

the Government of the United States and President 
Jackson prepared to use the army to enforce the law. 
The bitter strife distracted the country. 

Henry Clay once more appeared on the scene as a 
peacemaker. He disliked and feared President Jack- 
son. He was afraid of giving more military authority 
to a " man of his vehement passions." If Jackson 
was at the head of the troops enforcing the law in 
South Carolina, there was no telling what he might do. 

Clay therefore suggested another compromise in 
1833. He proposed that the tariff should be gradually 
reduced over a period of ten years, believing that South 
Carolina would no longer oppose the law. He then 
accepted the idea that the federal government should 
be given the troops and authority necessary to enforce 
the laws. The bill reducing the tariff and the " force 
bill" went through Congress at the same time. There 
was salve for South Carolina and salve for the advo- 
cates of law enforcement. Both sides, as usual in such 
cases, claimed the victory. 

Clay was again hailed as the man who had saved 
the Union by peaceful means. Long afterward he 
said that he seriously doubted the wisdom of his course 
in 1833. He thought it might have been better if he 
had not interfered. If he had not, the great question 
over which the Civil War was fought thirty years later 
might have been settled then and there. 

Clay's Desire to Become President. For seventeen 
years Clay continued to be a leader in the Whig or 



SLAVERY 281 

National Republican party. At each presidential 
election, his name was before the country. He was 
defeated in 1832. His party passed him by in 1840, 
and nominated General William Henry Harrison, who 
was elected. In 1844 Clay was again defeated. With 
advancing years he saw the great hope fading before 
his eyes. He was not, after all, to be President of the 
United States. Every other honor he wished came to 
him, but not that honor. 

Breakers Ahead! In Clay's last years, ominous events 
came thick and fast. Texas was annexed in 1845. 
War was waged on Mexico and new territories were 
won. Garrison and his band of agitators were 
arousing the country by denouncing " the national 
sin of slavery." The South grew more and more 
determined in its stand. It defended slaver}^ and 
demanded equal rights in the territories. It con- 
tinued to oppose the tariff. Calhoun spoke seriously of 
disunion. William Seward, Senator from New York, 
spoke gravely of a conflict that was bound to come. 

The Crisis of 1850. So things stood in December, 
1849, when Henr}" Clay arrived again in Washington 
to take his seat for the last time in the Senate. 
He was now seventy- two years old. His great am- 
bition to be President was laid aside, for there was no 
possibility of its ever being realized. He only hoped 
to pour oil on troubled waters and therefore set to 
work on a plan to please men on both sides. His 
scheme was simple : 



282 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

1. California, which was now asking admission to the 
Union, should be admitted as a free state. This pleased 
the North. 

2. Territorial government should be set up in Utah 
and New Mexico, but nothing at all should be said 
about slavery. This, in effect, opened the region to 
slavery and seemed to be favorable to the South. 

3. The slave trade (not slavery) should be abolished 
in the District of Columbia. This was favorable to 
the anti-slavery advocates. 

4. A fugitive slave law should be passed. By the 
terms of this law, the federal government was to aid in 
catching slaves who had run away from their masters 
and had reached the free states of the North. This 
was a favor to the friends of slavery. 

On February 5, 1850, Clay opened the debate on his 
compromise plans with a powerful speech. " Will you 
lend me your arm ? " he said to a friend as he climbed 
the stairs of the Capitol that morning. " I feel myself 
quite weak and exhausted." Many times he stopped to 
catch his breath. When he reached the Senate Chamber, 
he found the aisles and galleries crowded. People 
had come from far away to watch his heroic effort. 
Never had the Senate witnessed a more stirring or 
pathetic scene. 

As Clay rose to speak, a deep silence fell upon the 
crowded chamber. His tall form was bent and his 
hands trembled with age, but he was still a com- 
manding figure. All men knew that the Senator's 



SLAVERY 283 

earthly ambitions were put aside. Soon he would 
be done with the pomp and honors of high office. He 
had fixed his heart upon saving his country — by com- 
promise. 

He began his speech in a low and faltering voice 
but in the same gentle tone that had so long charmed 
the Senators about him. Slowly he rose to great 
heights, sweeping all before him like a storm. Every- 
thing conspired to make him eloquent. Solemn be- 
fore him was that " goal of all mortal " — the grave. 
All round him were his countrymen torn by angry 
and pitiless strife. The nation seemed to face its 
doom. 

In telling words he drew a picture of the civil war 
that would shake the nation to the very depths, if not 
averted by reason and compromise. For two days 
he pleaded and argued. He appealed to the Senators 
to pause in the presence of disaster. He begged 
them in the name of all they held dear, their love of 
liberty, their respect for their ancestors, their regard 
for their children, their gratitude to God, their duties 
to mankind. He closed by imploring Heaven that he 
might not live to see the Union broken up. If that was 
to come. 

His prayer that he might not live to see it was 
granted. Two years later loving friends at Lexington 
bore to the tomb the body of the great master of com- 
promise. Old men wept. Young men, heedless of his 
solemn warnings, went on their way. 



284 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

IV. The Answer of Webster — The Union at 
All Costs 

A Farmer's Son. In all the North, there was but 
one man who could stand up against Southern leaders 
in debate. That was Daniel Webster, the son of a 
sturdy New Hampshire farmer. 

Webster's Education. One hot summer day, while 
the two were laboring together in the hayfield, the 
father told the son of his plans to send him to school. 
The next spring the boy entered Exeter Academy. 
His schoolmates jeered at him on account of his rough 
clothes and awkward hands, but he went to work at 
his books with a will. In a little while he was at the 
head of the class. In 1797 he was a freshman at 
Dartmouth College, where he became prominent in 
sports as well as in debating. 

Webster in Congress. For a time after graduation 
Webster taught school. Then he began the practice 
of law in New Hampshire. It was soon evident that 
he was a leader of men. When the war of 18 12 broke 
out, he wrote a powerful argument against it. This 
made him popular with the voters of his state, who 
were opposed to the war, and he was elected to Con- 
gress. On taking his seat, in 18 13, he did all he could 
to embarrass President Madison by making many 
speeches, especially against the bill " to encourage en- 
listments in the United States Army." He urged the 
government to wage merely a defensive war on the sea 



SLAVERY 



285 



against the British navy. He did not, however, approve 
of the Hartford Convention. 

Webster Moves to Massachusetts. Two years after 
the close of the war he transferred his law ofhce to 
Boston, and until 
his death was a 
citizen of Massa- 
chusetts. In 1822 
Webster was again 
elected to Congress 
and from that time 
on he was almost 
continually in the 
service of the fed- 
eral government, 
as member of the 
House of Repre- 
sentatives, Sen- 
ator, or Secretary 
of State. 

The Reply to 
Hayne. He was in 
the Senate of the 
United States when 
Robert Hayne, of 
South Carolina, delivered a powerful oration favoring 
the doctrine of nullification. On January 26, 183 1, 
Webster made his celebrated " reply to Hayne." In 
this speech he laid down four propositions in defense 




Daniel Webster, Senator from Massachu- 
setts, Advocate of the American Union 
under the constitution 



286 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

of the principle that the United States is a perpetual 
Union and supreme over the states : 

First, the states are not separate but are parts of 
one common country, united under the same general 
government, having common interests. 

Secondly, the Constitution was made, not by the 
states, but by the people. The government of the 
United States is therefore not a government of inde- 
pendent states but of the American people. 

Thirdly, no state can refuse to obey a law of Congress 
and still remain a lawful part of the Union. Nullifica- 
tion is revolution. 

Fourthly, any state or person who questions the 
power of Congress to make any law should appeal to 
the Supreme Court of the United States instead of re- 
fusing to obey the law. That court has the power to 
decide finally all disputes between the states and the 
federal government. If it decides that a law passed by 
Congress is not in agreement with the Constitution, it 
can declare the law null and void. 

In a burst of impassioned eloquence, Webster closed 
with the prayer that in his last hours he might behold the 
flag of his country, floating in full glory in the heavens, 
bearing that " sentiment, dear to every true American 
heart — Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and 
inseparable." 

A National Orator. This oration made Webster 
famous for all time. Never had the country heard 
such a telling plea for the Union. Thousands of 



SLAVERY 287 

copies were printed, and it was read in every hamlet, 
from his old home state of New Hampshire to the 
Mississippi Valley, It is perhaps correct to say that 
Webster was " the greatest orator this country has 
ever known." It is also correct to say that he should 
be ranked among the first orators of all nations and 
all times. His eloquent speeches led tens of thousands 
in the North to think of the Union as first and of the 
states as second. The selfish old sectionalism of New 
England was laid aside. Men who had talked of dis- 
union during the war of 18 12 now felt ashamed of them- 
selves and hailed Webster as their hero. 

The Seventh of March Speech. Nearly twenty 
years after the reply to Hayne, namely, in 1850, the 
country was again distracted with threats of disunion. 
Once more, Webster, In a speech delivered on March 
7, 1850, made an eloquent plea for a united nation. 
He begged his hearers to place the Union above all other 
things. He entreated them to forget all minor matters 
and fix their hearts and minds upon the Constitution 
and their country. 

Fortunately for him, too, he did not live to see the 
nation torn by the terrible Civil War that was so soon 
to follow. In the autumn of 1852 Webster died at his 
home In Marshfield, Massachusetts. 

In his last days Webster was losing popularity at 
home. The people of New England were turning 
gradually toward the abolition of slavery. To him 
abolition was a foolish idea. He believed that it would 



288 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

arouse the South to extreme action — perhaps to dis- 
union. He belonged to a generation that was passing. 
New men we're coming upon the scene. One of them, 
then in the prime of his Hfe, Abraham Lincoln, had 
already taken up the cause of the Union where Webster 
had laid it down. 

Questions and Exercises 

Make a list of the reasons that explain why slavery grew in the 
Southern states and died out in the Northern states. Why was 
the South against a tariff on manufactured goods ? Why was 
the North favorable toward such a tariff ? 

I. Study the reasons that Calhoun gave for his belief that 
slavery was a good thing ; can you answer each of these argu- 
ments ? What are the differences between states and territories f 
What possessions of our country to-day are territories ? Name 
some states that were territories or parts of territories in Cal- 
houn's time. Why did Calhoun wish to have slavery extended 
to the territories ? How many senators does each state have in 
Congress ? How is the number of representatives from each 
state fixed .'' What did Calhoun mean when he said that the 
North and the South should be balanced ? What is meant by 
abolition ? What is meant by secession ? 

II. How did Garrison's views differ from those of Calhoun ? 
Calhoun had said that the South would secede from the Union if 
the North insisted on the abolition of slavery; how did Garrison 
meet this threat .'' Why was Garrison ill treated even in the North 
for preaching against slavery .^ Why should a story like Uncle 
Tom's Cabin have had a wider influence in arousing the people 
against slavery than writings that did not have the form of a 
story .? 

III. What did Henry Clay think about slavery ? What did 
he mean by "gradual emancipation" 1 What is meant by admit- 



SLAVERY 289 

ting a state to the Union ? Why did the North oppose the admis- 
sion of Missouri as a slave state ? Why did the South oppose its 
admission as a free state ? Find the southern boundary of Aiissouri 
and trace the line westward ; the Missouri Compromise forbade 
the admission of slave states north of this line ; in what region, 
then, was the extension of slavery prohibited by the Missouri 
Compromise ? What did Henry Clay hope to do through the 
Compromise of 1850 ? Locate California, Utah, and New Mexico. 
What parts of this compromise pleased the North and why ? 
What was the difference between abolishing the slave trade and 
abolishing slavery ? What is meant by a fugitive ? Why did 
the fugitive slave law please the South ? What other parts of 
the compromise pleased the South ? 

IV. How did Webster's views differ from those of Garrison r 
Of Calhoun ? Of Clay ? What is meant by the Union ? What 
is the difference between a union and an alliance of independent 
countries ? (Remember our alliance with France during the 
Revolution ; remember also that England, France, Belgium, 
Italy, and Russia formed an alliance against Germany at the out- 
set of the World War.) What are some of the differences between 
a federation of states and a real union ^ (Remember that the 
United States formed a federation before the adoption of the 
Constitution in 17S9.) If your school is made up of several class- 
rooms, think of some of the ways in which these classrooms could 
form an alliance, a federation, and a union. 

Suggestions for Reading 

Southworth's Builders of Our Country, Book II, pp. 158-165 
(Clay), pp. 167-175 (Webster); Hart's Source Readers of Ameri- 
can History, No. 3, How Our Grandfathers Lived, pp. 341-344 
(Daniel Webster) ; Gordy's American Leaders and Heroes, pp. 
264-271 (Webster, Clay, Calhoun) ; Brooks' Stories of the Old 
Bay State, pp. 192-199 (Webster) ; Coffin's Building the Nation, 



290 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

pp. 285-290 (Garrison), pp. 246-250 (nullification, Calhoun, Web- 
ster), Ch. xxvii (Compromise of 1850), Ch. xxviii (Fugitive-slave 
Law); Wright's Children's Stories of American Progress, pp. 159- 
178 (slavery and the Missouri Compromise) ; Hart's Source Readers 
of American History, No. 4, Romance of the Civil War, pp. 51-67 
(anecdotes of fugitive slaves). 

Problems for Further Study 

Give as many reasons as you can for believing slavery to be 
wrong. Many people both in the North and in the South held 
that slavery was a "necessary evil" ; what did they mean by this .'' 



CHAPTER XVI 

THE VOICE OF THE NORTH — LINCOLN 

The Problem : Should Slavery Be Permitted in the 
Territories? A few years after Clay's death, his grand 
compromise had broken down. Two stirring events 
proved that his " union of hearts " was a failure. 

On May 30, 1854, President Pierce signed the Kansas- 
Nebraska Act by which these two states were admitted 
to the Union and permitted to decide each for itself 
whether it would be a free state or a slave state. Both 
states lie north of the line that forms the southern 
boundary of Missouri. Thus the Kansas-Nebraska 
Act really killed the Missouri Compromise (see p. 279), 
in which it had been agreed that slavery should not be 
permitted north of that line. If the people of Kansas 
and Nebraska could decide for themselves about slavery, 
all other new states would, of course, have the same 
right. All the Louisiana country was thus thrown open 
to slavery. This was a stunning blow to those who 
thought Clay's compromise had silenced debate on the 
slavery question. 

Three years later a still more startling event occurred. 
The Supreme Court of the United States decided the 
famous case of Dred Scott, a slave who had sued for 

291 



292 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

his freedom on the ground that his master had taken 
him into a territory in which slavery was forbidden by 
the Missouri Compromise. The Court declared that 
Congress had no power, under the Constitution, to 
abolish slavery in the territories. This meant that 
slavery could spread all through the territories of the 
great West. 

These events presented a grave problem to the 
foes of slavery in the North. If they made no 
protest, then all their work against slavery would come 
to naught. Moreover, slavery, once firmly established 
In the territories, might spread into the free states. 
Evidently here was a danger that could not be over- 
looked. 

Many Northern citizens sprang to the front to offer 
a solution to the problem. Chief among them was 
a man of singular power from Illinois — Abraham 
Lincoln. Fate decreed that he should be President 
when the perplexing question was settled forever on the 
field of battle. 

I. The Making of a Great Statesman 

In Kentucky. The early life of Lincoln was like that 
of thousands of boys on the western frontier. His 
birthplace was a rude log cabin in Washington County, 
Kentucky. His birthday was February 12, 1809, just 
a few days before Thomas Jefferson ended his presi- 
dential career and retired to his home in Virginia. 

Of Lincoln's ancestors we have a brief account from 



THE VOICE OF THE NORTH — LINCOLN 



293 



his own pen. " My parents," he relates, " were both 
born in Virginia, of undistinguished famihes. . . . My 
mother was of a family by the name of Hanks. . . . My 
paternal grandfather, Abraham Lincoln, moved from 
Rockingham County, Virginia, to Kentucky about 1781 




The Log Cabin in which Lincoln was Born, Partially Restored 



or 1782 . . . His ancestors, who were Quakers, went 
to Virginia from Berks County, Pennsylvania." Be- 
yond Pennsylvania, the Lincoln family has been traced 
to New England. 

In Indiana. The annals of Lincoln's boyhood form 
the story of a poor, hard-working farmer's lad. 



294 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

Abraham's father was a shiftless, wandering frontiers- 
man. He moved his family across the Ohio into 
Indiana in 1816. There he built a log cabin, open on 
one side to sun and wind. In that wretched shed, 
Lincoln's mother died two years later. In a coffin 
made out of rough boards, the poor woman was buried 
by the father and son in a forest clearing. It was not 
until many weeks afterward that a minister could be 
found to perform a ceremony at her grave. 

The next year Abraham had a stepmother. She gave 
her husband no peace until he put a floor, a door, and 
windows in the cabin, and closed the fourth side which 
he had left open. Fortunately for the boy, she was 
kind, thrifty, and industrious. Still, Abraham's life 
was one of hard work and rough living. He labored 
on his father's farm at every kind of task. In his 
*' spare time " he was " hired out " by his father to 
neighbors in need of help. 

In Illinois. When Abraham was sixteen years old, 
his father was struck by the moving fever again. 
He packed his household goods in a wagon and went 
West into Illinois with his family. At the end of 
fourteen days he reached the Sangamon river, where 
he settled again. He built another cabin and with 
the help of his stalwart son made a clearing and split 
rails to fence it in. 

Lincoln's Education. According to his own account, 
Lincoln did not go to school more than six months. 
Like Benjamin Franklin, he was self-educated. He 



THE VOICE OF THE NORTH — LINCOLN 295 

studied English grammar after he was twenty-three 
years old. He mastered geometry after he had been 
elected a member of Congress. 

His Books. The few books which he had in his 
boyhood included a life of Washington, a small history 
of the United States, Webster's spelling book and 
dictionary, the Bible, Robinso7i Crusoe, ^Esop's Fables, 
Arabian Nights, Pilgrim's Progress, Franklin's Auto- 
biography, and the speeches of Henry Clay. He 
read again and again the Bible and the other books. 
From them he acquired that clear, simple, terse English 
style which marked his speeches. From them he 
learned the plain, homely, telling words used by the 
common people. Having but a few books, he mastered 
them all. 

How Lincoln Studied. In the light of the fire blaz- 
ing upon the hearth during the long winter nights, the 
boy pored over these books until they became a part of 
his mind. He has himself told us of one of the means 
he employed to improve his education. When he 
heard any one use a sentence or express an idea which 
he did not understand, he would not rest day or night 
until he found out what it meant. " I kept at it," he 
said, " until I had it put in language plain enough, as 
I thought, for any boy I knew to comprehend. This 
was a kind of passion with me, and it has stuck by me ; 
for I am never easy now when I am handling a thought, 
till I have bounded it north, bounded it south, bounded 
it east, and bounded it west." 



296 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

When he was a candidate for President, he said 
regarding his education : " Abraham . . . regrets his 
want of education and does what he can to supply the 
want." How simple and true was that short sentence ! 

His Speeches. By studying good books and think- 
ing hard himself, Lincoln learned how to make speeches 
on political questions that any one could understand. 
He did not thunder at people, like Daniel Webster 
or Henry Clay ; he gripped them by talking in a direct, 
friendly, and convincing manner. They could under- 
stand him, and they trusted him. 

The Young Man. When Abraham reached the age 
of twenty-one and was free to make his own way in 
the world, he did not differ much from other farmer 
boys in the neighborhood. He played with them, 
told stories, and went to country parties like all the 
rest. 

On his coming of age an unusual event happened 
in his life. He went down the Mississippi River on a 
flatboat loaded with hogs, pork, and corn. It is re- 
lated that on this journey he saw, for the first time, 
slaves at work in the fields and sold on the auction block. 
The sight continued to torment him in all his later 
years. According to one story he said to a friend : 
*' If ever I get a chance to hit that thing, I'll hit it 
hard." 

A Village Storekeeper. In the summer of 183 1 
Lincoln was engaged as a storekeeper in New Salem, 
a village of ten or fifteen houses. While employed in 



THE VOICE OF THE NORTH — LINCOLN 



297 



this work, he became known in the community for 
his honesty in deaUng with customers. One day a 
woman by mistake gave him a few pennies too much 
for some small purchase. On finding the error, he 
walked several miles that night to return the money to 
its rightful owner. After a few months, however, the 
store failed and the young clerk was out of a position. 



iV^ 




Flatboat on the IVlississiPPi River 

In Military Service. Just at this time a call came 
for volunteers to help the regular soldiers in a war 
against some Indians who were shooting and robbing 
on the Illinois frontier. Lincoln answered the call. 
His popularity in the region was shown by the fact 
that he was elected captain of his company. He 
served with credit and was discharged with honor. 
By a curious chance his discharge was signed by 



298 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

Robert Anderson, who was long afterward to command 
the Union troops at Fort Sumter. On his return from 
" war," Lincoln had to think seriously about what he 
was to do in life. He tried clerking in a store again and 
then decided to study and practice law. For this career 
he had received little training from teachers. 

Lincoln's Early Political Career. Soon after his 
return from the Indian " war," Lincoln was a can- 
didate for the state legislature. In 1834 he was 
elected. While in the legislature, in 1837, he was one 
of two men who favored a protest against slavery — 
a bold action for that early time. In 1846 Lincoln 
was chosen a member of Congress by the Whigs. His 
career at Washington was brief and in no way re- 
markable. He did not approve of the war with Mexico 
and on this account lost many friends in his district. 
He was not reelected. For several years Lincoln 
quietly practiced law in Springfield, Illinois. 

The Slavery Question Comes to the Fore. By 1858 
the slavery question became a burning issue. The 
country was all astir. Congress had repealed the 
Missouri Compromise in 1854, thus opening all the 
territory to slavery. The Supreme Court of the United 
States, by the Dred Scott decision in 1857, had de- 
clared that Congress could not abolish slavery in the 
territories. Lincoln was opposed to slavery in the 
territories, and he decided to become the Republican 
candidate for the United States Senate against Stephen 
A. Douglas, an eminent Democrat. 



THE VOICE OF THE NORTH — LINCOLN 299 

The Lincoln-Douglas Debates. While campaign- 
ing for the Senate, Lincoln engaged in a series of debates 
with his opponent, Douglas. In these debates the 
two candidates discussed the slavery question from 
every angle. Douglas held that the people of the 
territories should be allowed to decide whether they 
wanted slavery or not. Lincoln replied that Congress 
governed the territories and should prohibit slavery 
there. The debates made Lincoln known throughout 
the country, although he was defeated in the election 
for the Senate. Early in i860 he made a tour of the 
East, where he was warmly received. 

IL Lincoln and the Slavery Question 

Slavery is a Wrong. There was no doubt about 
Lincoln's position on the " right and wrong " of 
slavery. Once, when speaking on the moral side 
of the question, he summed up his views in this 
way : " That is the real issue [of slavery]. ... It is 
the eternal struggle between these two principles — 
right and wrong — throughout the world. They are 
the two principles that have stood face to face from 
the beginning of time ; and will ever continue to 
struggle. One is the common right of humanity and 
the other is the divine right of kings. ... It is the 
same spirit that says, ' You toil and work and earn 
bread and I'll eat it.' No matter in what shape it 
comes, whether from the mouth of a king ... or from 
one race of men as an apology for enslaving another 



300 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

race, it is the same tyrannical principle." His opinion, 
he repeated in his Cooper Union speech of i860, rested 
on his " conviction that slavery is wrong." 

No Interference with Slavery in Slave States. 
Though convinced that slavery was wrong, Lincoln 
did not propose to interfere with it in the slave states. 
There it was recognized by the Constitution of the 
United States. Each state had the right to decide 
for itself whether it would adopt the system or not. 
Illinois, under the federal Constitution, could not 
dictate to Missouri. " I have said a hundred times," 
Lincoln exclaimed in 1858, " and I have now no inclina- 
tion to take it back, that I believe there is no right, and 
ought to be no inclination, in the people of the free 
states to enter a slave state and interfere with the 
question at all." 

Lincoln against Slavery in the Territories. Believ- 
ing that slavery was wrong, Lincoln was, however, in 
favor of preventing its spread to the new territories. 
Congress had the power under the Constitution to 
govern the territories, and Lincoln insisted that it 
should abolish or prohibit slavery in them. " Can we, 
while our votes will prevent it," he asked, " allow it 
to spread into the national territories and to overrun 
us here in these free states ? If our sense of duty for- 
bids this, then let us stand by our duty fearlessly and 
effectively. . . . Let us have the faith that right 
makes might and in that faith let us to the end dare 
to do our duty as we understand it." 



THE VOICE OF THE NORTH — LINCOLN 301 

Lincoln's Argument. In taking this ground, Lincoln 
claimed to be walking in the footsteps of the fathers 
of our country. Washington and Jefferson, he said, 
had thought slavery wrong. He simply held their 
opinion on that point. Congress, in the Northwest 
Ordinance of 1787, had forbidden slavery in the North- 
west Territory. Lincoln proposed to prohibit it in 
the Western territories across the Mississippi. He 
hoped that, encircled by liberty, slavery would die. 
He did not share the views of those abolitionists who 
demanded immediate and complete emancipation of 
the slaves everywhere. 

HL The Election of i860 

The Break-up of the Democratic Party. When the 
time arrived to elect a new President, in i860, every 
one knew that a crisis was at hand. Each political 
party, as usual, held a great meeting called a convention, 
and selected a candidate for President. In April the 
Democrats held their convention at Charleston, South 
Carolina. It was soon evident that they were sharply 
divided among themselves. After wrangling for more 
than a week, they adjourned to meet at Baltimore. 
In the meantime a number of delegates from the 
" cotton states " withdrew from the convention. 

Stephen A. Douglas. As a result of their divisions, 
the Democrats held two conventions and nominated 
two candidates. One of them was the Northern man 
with whom Lincoln had debated, Stephen A. Douglas. 



302 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

He was regarded as " a moderate man." He did 
not propose to force slavery on the territories but 
to permit the people of the territories to decide for 
themselves. On this account he was accused of " look- 
ing both ways." He would open the territories to 
slavery. That, It seemed, would please the South. 
He would allow the people of a territory to abolish 
slavery themselves If they wanted to do so. That, 
it was said, would please the North. 

John C. Breckinridge. The Democrats who with- 
drew from the regular convention nominated John C. 
Breckinridge, of Kentucky. This group was composed 
of men who wanted no compromise with the North 
on the slavery question. They stood squarely on what 
they regarded as the rights of the South under the 
federal Constitution : (l) they declared that slave 
owners had a right to take slaves Into any territory ; 
(2) they maintained that Congress had no power to 
exclude slavery from the territories. This was a bold 
and positive stand. There could be no doubt about 
the views of this group of Democrats. 

A New Moderate Party. Alarmed by the angry 
feelings stirred up In the county, some moderate men 
held a convention at Baltimore and formed a new 
party. They took the name " Constitutional Union " 
and declared In favor of the Constitution and the 
Union. They said that saving the Union was the duty 
of all patriots. They condemned the extremists In 
the South and the anti-slavery men of the North, 



THE VOICE OF THE NORTH — LINCOLN 303 

and nominated a candidate for President, John Bell, 
of Tennessee. 

The Republican Convention at Chicago. In May, 
i860, Chicago was aroused by a flood of delegates who 
poured in for the Republican convention. They were 
all alert for the contest. Now that the Democrats 
were split, the Republicans were almost sure of winning 
in the coming election. The choice of candidates was 
therefore a serious business. On the third ballot 
Lincoln was nominated. 

Lincoln Elected. Early in November the nation 
learned that Lincoln had been elected. He had carried 
every Northern state except New Jersey. In the states 
of the far South he had not polled a single vote. 
In February of the next year, Lincoln bade farewell 
to his friends in Springfield, and journeyed East to 
assume the burdens of his high office. 

Questions and Exercises 

What is meant by Clay's "union of hearts" to which the text 
refers ? Do you think that really important questions can ever 
be settled satisfactorily by compromise ? Give the reasons for 
your answer. The population of the territories was at this time 
very small ; why, therefore, were the people of both the Northern 
and the Southern states so interested in the question as to whether 
or not slavery should be permitted in the territories ? 

I. Lincoln's father was what we call a pioneer. How does a 
pioneer differ from an explorer ? From an emigrant ? Are emi- 
grants sometimes pioneers ? How do you think that Lincoln's 
early life helped him to serve well in the office of President in later 



304 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

life ? Which kind of oratory do you prefer : that of Webster and 
Clay, or that of Lincoln ? Why ? What is meant by a debate ? 
Who was Stephen A. Douglas ? 

II. What did Lincoln mean when he said that slavery was con- 
nected in principle with the "divine right of kings"? If Lincoln 
thought that slavery was wrong, why did he believe that the 
people in the free states ought not to try to abolish slavery in the 
slave states ? 

III. We are told that in i860 the Democrats disagreed with 
one another and that some of them broke away from the others 
and held a separate convention. Have you ever heard of other 
cases where political parties split just before a great election ? 
Why are new political parties likely to be formed when the mem- 
bers of the old ones cannot agree with one another ? Why did 
the Republicans in i860 have an unusually good chance to have 
their candidate elected ^ 

Suggestions for Reading 

Tappan's American Hero Stories, pp. 254-264 ; McMurry's Pio- 
neers of the Mississippi Valley, pp. 170-184 ; Gordy's Our Patriots, 
pp. 163-179; Southworth's Builders of Our Country, Vol. II, pp. 
186—217; Foote and Skinner's Makers and Defenders of America, 
pp. 230-249; Elbridge S. Brooks' True Story of Abraham Lincoln; 
Helen Nicolay's Boy''s Life of Abraham Lincoln; Daniel E. 
Wheeler's Abraham Lincoln, in True Stories of Great Americans. 

Problems for Further Study 

What is the difference between an educated and an uneducated 
man ? Was Lincoln educated ? In what ways do children to-day 
have a better chance to be educated than Lincoln had .^ Did 
Lincoln solve the problem of slavery in the way in which he 
thought it ought to be solved ? (See Chapter XVIII.) Why 
must we have political parties ? Make a list of the free states and 
the slave states in i860. 



CHAPTER XVII 

THE SOUTH RESOLUTE — JEFFERSON DAVIS 

The Southern Problem : How Should Southern 
Interests Be Protected? Early In November, i860, 
the news sped over the wires to every part of the 
country announcing the election of Lincoln. This was 
a direct challenge to the South. Lincoln was not an 
abolitionist, but he was firmly opposed to slavery in 
the territories. He taught that slavery was wrong. 
If slavery was wrong, then Southern leaders were 
wrong. 

That was not all. The exclusion of slavery from the 
territories meant that, in time, the North would over- 
balance the South in the Senate. The North would 
dominate the countr)^ It would elect a majority of 
Senators and Representatives. It would choose the 
President. The rights of the South would thus be 
endangered. Such, at least, was the Southern view. 
The election of Lincoln put an end to Southern hopes 
for a vast slave territory in the West. It was clear 
that the South could not expand and keep up with 
the growing free states. 

What were Southern leaders to do now that Lincoln 
was elected ^ That was the question. Were they to 
X 305 



3o6 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

remain in the Union and risk being outvoted by the 
North and West on all questions touching the tariff, 
slavery, and the rights of states ? Were they to hope 
for some kind of compromise with Lincoln ? Or 
were they to withdraw from the Union and form self- 
governing states of their own ? 

I. Secession and the Leader 

The South Divided. On the serious problem of the 
day Southern leaders were at first divided. The states 
of the far South — South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, 
Georgia, Alabama, Louisiana, and Texas, — "the cotton 
states," were in favor of secession. And they did secede 
before Lincoln could be inaugurated. The inland and 
border states, Arkansas, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, 
North Carolina, Virginia, Maryland, and Delaware — 
all slave states — were in favor of a compromise. 
They tried to come to an agreement with Lincoln, 
but failed. He was as firm as a rock on the question 
of slavery in the territories. Not until after war 
opened did Arkansas, Tennessee, North Carolina, and 
Virginia decide to withdraw from the Union. The 
extreme northern tier of slave states, Maryland, Dela- 
ware, Kentucky, and Missouri, remained in the Union. 
Some of the western counties of Virginia, in which 
secession was strongly opposed, were later formed into 
a separate Union state. West Virginia. 

The Man and the Hour. On February 17, 1861, 
the streets of Montgomery, Alabama, were filled with 



THE SOUTH RESOLUTE — JEFFERSON DAVIS 307 

excited throngs. A congress of delegates from the 
states that had seceded was assembled in that city. 
The Congress had formed a new union or league, called 
the Confederate States of America. It had chosen as 




© Brown Bros., New York. 

The State Capitol at Montgomery, Alabama, Where the Southern 
Confederacy was Founded in i86i 

temporary President a leading figure among the states- 
men of secession, Jefferson Davis, and he had arrived to 
take the oath of office. Crowds had come from far and 
near to see him. He was presented to them on the portico 
of the Exchange Hotel. Cheer upon cheer rose as he 
stepped to view. An old friend, a follower of John C. 



308 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

Calhoun, greeted him in the name of the Southern 
people, in an eloquent address closing with the thrilling 
words : " The man and the hour have met." 

The Training of Jefferson Davis. — Who was this 
man that he should be chosen to lead the Southern 
cause? His story is the story of a Southern planter's 
son. When Abraham Lincoln was born in 1809, there 
lay in his cradle in another part of Kentucky a 
little baby only a few months old. That baby was 
Jefferson Davis, born June 3, 1808. His father was a 
devoted admirer of Thomas Jefferson, then President 
of the United States. It was for that reason that the 
child was named " Jefferson." 

Boyhood of Davis and Lincoln Contrasted. But 
how great the difference between the homes of the two 
children ! Abraham Lincoln had for a birthplace a 
log cabin with a dirt floor, and for parents poverty- 
stricken pioneers. The other, Jefferson Davis, was 
born in a comfortable home. Slaves waited on him 
in his youth. His parents were well-to-do people and 
were able to give him the advantages of an .education 
at school. 

Abraham Lincoln's father moved from Kentucky 
into the free state of Indiana and then into the free 
state of Illinois. His youth was therefore spent among 
people who owned no slaves. Jefferson Davis's father, 
on the other hand, moved far south, first into Louisiana 
and then into Mississippi. He became prosperous, 
though not one of the richest planters. All about him 



THE SOUTH RESOLUTE— JEFFERSON DAVIS 309 

in his youth Davis saw slaves at work in the fields. 
None of his friends thought that slavery was wrong or 
criticized the owners of slaves. They all sincerely 
believed, with Calhoun, that slavery was a positive 
good, and that the slaves were better off and happier 
than they would be if turned loose to struggle for 
themselves. 

Davis at School. After spending a short time at a 
school in the neighborhood, young Jeiferson Davis 
was sent to an academy of excellent reputation in 
Kentucky. While on the long journey to Kentucky, 
he stopped at the home of Andrew Jackson, who had 
recently come back from his famous victory at New 
Orleans. This visit was a great experience in the life 
of the youth. 

After finishing his academic course, Jefferson entered 
Transylvania University, at Lexington, from which he 
graduated in 1824. In that year two important inci- 
dents occurred. His father died, leaving him a modest 
fortune, which made him independent ; and he entered 
the United States Militar)^ Academy at West Point, 
embarking upon a military career. 

There he met three men who were long afterward to 
be associated with him in the Civil War. They were 
students then in training for a military life : Robert 
E. Lee, Albert Sydney Johnston, . and Joseph E. 
Johnston. 

Davis and Military Life. After completing his 
studies at West Point, Davis became an officer in the 



310 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

United States Army. He was stationed in the North- 
west district, — consisting of northern Illinois, Michigan, 
Wisconsin and Minnesota, — then a vast wilderness. 
Indians claimed the country as a home, and hunters 
invaded it for precious furs. Years afterward Davis 
served with distinction in the Mexican War, and won 
high praise for his courage and ability. 

II. The Southern Leader at Washington 

Preparation. A little while after his return from 
Mexico, Davis entered political life as a Senator from 
Mississippi. He had already spent a short time in 
the House of Representatives. It must not be thought 
that his preparation for politics was purely military. 

In his early years, Davis had devoted himself to 
careful studies in the history of our country. He 
gave special attention to the writings of the famous 
statesmen who lived in Washington's time. Jeffer- 
son's works he read with particular care. Then 
he studied the great English writers — the poets, 
Byron, Burns, and Shakespeare, and the essayists, 
Addison, Steele, and Swift. Thus he combined a 
knowledge of American history with a knowledge of 
the best English literature. He could write and speak 
clearly and forcefully. 

Davis and Nullification. Bearing the great name of 
Jefferson, and born in Kentucky, Davis early heard of 
the " doctrine of nullification," Thomas Jefferson's 
belief that a state could refuse to obey a federal 



THE SOUTH RESOLUTE— JEFFERSON DAVIS 311 



law. He thought that this belief was sound. A great 
man had taught it and his father had believed it. 
Jefferson Davis naturally accepted it as true. He was 
out at the army post in 1832 when he heard of nulli- 
fication in South Carolina. He then declared that he 
would leave the army 



if ordered 
against a 
state. 



to fight 

sovereign 

said he 




He 
would tear his army 
commission " to tat- 
ters " rather than 
serve in a civil war 
designed to compel a 
state to obey a law 
which it had declared 
void. 

Political Views. 
From 1847 until the 
election of Lincoln, 
Jefferson Davis spent 
most of his time at 
Washington as a mem- 
ber either of the Senate or of the President's cabi- 
net. Those were stormy days. He was there during 
the memorable debate over the Compromise of 1850. 
On all the leading questions he stood forth as a 
champion of the Southern cause. He opposed the 
tariff bitterly, declaring it to be a tax laid on 



Jefferson Davis, President of the Con- 
federate States of America 



312 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

Southern planters. He favored the repeal of the 
Missouri Compromise. He held that the Southern 
people had equal rights with the Northern people in 
the territories. Therefore, he argued, they had the 
right to take slaves with them into the territories. 

Davis Takes a Firm Stand on Slavery. As to slavery 
itself, Davis took the Calhoun view, which was generally 
accepted among Southern leaders. Slavery was a good 
— a positive good. That theory was being taught at 
Southern colleges. Professor Thomas Dew of William 
and Mary College was an eloquent and learned teacher 
of the doctrine. Southern Baptists, Methodists, and 
Presbyterians had broken from their Northern brethren 
on that point and declared in favor of slavery. A 
Southern writer has said : " The pulpits of all the 
churches were largely occupied by men who thought 
negro servitude the basis of the natural and divine 
order of things." Jefferson Davis accepted the pre- 
vailing Southern view. He spoke what he believed to 
be the truth when he said : "African slavery, as it 
exists in the United States, is a moral, a social, and a 
political blessing." He thought that it was sanctioned 
by the Bible and that it had God's approval. 

Davis and the Coming Conflict. Davis believed 
in the right of secession. He held that each state 
was independent, that the Constitution was an agree- 
ment among free states, and that a state could 
rightfully and lawfully withdraw from the Union. In 
this he was as sincere as Lincoln, who held the opposite 



THE SOUTH RESOLUTE — JEFFERSON DAVIS 313 

opinion. But Davis did not wish to see the Union dis- 
solved. He was not as extreme in his views as many 
other Southern leaders. He did not welcome the 
coming conflict cheerfully, as did many of his friends. 
On the contrary he strove anxiously for some peace- 
ful way out of the strife which he saw ahead. 

Only slowly and sorrowfully was he driven to the 
conclusion that secession was coming. It was not 
until December, i860, that he joined other Southern 
Senators in signing a proclamation that the time had 
come for secession and the establishment of a Southern 
Confederacy. They did this, they said, because they 
were convinced that " the Republicans are resolute 
in the purpose to grant nothing that will or ought to 
satisfy the South." 

Davis and Compromise. Even then, Davis did not 
give up all hope. Senator Crittenden of Kentucky, 
like Henry Clay before him, tried to save the Union 
by compromise. He proposed to extend the Missouri 
Compromise line of 36°3o' all the way to the Pacific 
Ocean as the line between slavery and freedom. Jef- 
ferson Davis was willing to accept this compromise. 
It was presented to Lincoln, who replied : " No com- 
promise on the question of slavery extension ; on that 
point hold firm as steel." 

III. Secession as a Last Resort 

Davis Bids the Senate Farewell. Jefferson Davis 
now felt that the end had come. In January, 1861, 



314 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

he rose in the Senate to bid his friends farewell for the 
last time. Not since the crisis of 1850 had the Senate 
been the scene of such excitement. Mississippi had 
withdrawn from the Union two days before. Davis was 
loyal to his state. The time had come to take his own 
leave of the Union. When he rose a deep and awful 
silence fell upon the crowded chamber. The orator 
spoke without bitterness — simply, plainly, and sadly. 
Tears came to the eyes of men who had opposed him. 
Sincerity was in his voice and in every word. Men 
might think him wrong, but none could deny that 
Jefferson Davis was following the right as he under- 
stood the right. 

Davis as President of the Confederacy. About a 
month later, Davis was elected president of the new 
league of states — the Southern Confederacy. In 
his inaugural address, he threw upon the North the 
responsibility for war if war came. The South 
sought to leave the Union lawfully and rightfully, he 
argued, and would not strike unless the North struck 
first. " Honor and right and liberty and equality," he 
said, were at stake, and the South stood ready to 
defend them against a Northern invasion. " Let us 
invoke," he closed, " the God of our fathers. . . . 
With the continuance of His favor . . . we may hope- 
fully look forward to success, to peace, and to pros- 
perity." 

Davis at Richmond. When the other states seceded, 
the capital of the Confederacy was moved to Richmond, 



THE SOUTH RESOLUTE — JEFFERSON DAVIS 315 

Virginia. On May 29, 1861, amid the thunder of 
cannon, Davis arrived in the city. Confederate flags 
flew from every mast and delighted crowds thronged 
the streets. Richmond, with every sign of honor and 
rejoicing, received its " first and only President." 




The '"White House ok the Confederacy," the Home of Jefferson Da\is 

IN Richmond, \a. 

One of the handsomest houses in the Capital was fitted 
up as the presidential mansion. There Jefferson Davis 
made his home through four long and weary years — 
years as tr\^ing to patience, wisdom, and honor as those 
endured by that other son of Kentucky at Washington. 



3l6 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

Jefferson Davis was in the prime of his manhood. 
His tall, thin form marked him out in every group 
he entered. Shaggy eyebrows overhung bluish-gray 
eyes giving signs of grim strength and firm will. A 
broad, high forehead revealed great mental powers. 
He was indeed " as handsome as resolute." He im- 
pressed all who met him as a leader of a high order. 
As a strong man he made enemies, but he also drew 
to him the affections of the Southern people. 

Questions and Exercises 

Why did the election of Lincoln put an end to the hopes of 
the South for increasing slave territory in the West ? Besides 
the question of slavery, what were two other matters regarding 
which the North and South had often disagreed ? 

I. Certain states are referred to in the text as the cotton 
states ; find if the list of cotton states given here agrees with 
that in your geographies. Why do you suppose that the southern- 
most states seceded first .'' Would you expect a man who be- 
lieved in slavery to be the son of a slave-owner ? Where is West 
Point ? Do you think that it was an advantage to the South 
that some of its greatest military leaders were trained in the same 
school as their later opponents .'' 

II. Make as complete a list as you can of Davis's political 
beliefs. State what he did to uphold each of these beliefs. How 
did his beliefs agree with those of most of his fellow citizens in 
the South } Which of Davis's ideas were new ^ Which had others 
held before him ? 

III. Do you think that Davis was the natural choice of the 
South for president of the Confederacy ? Find out the design 
of the Confederate flag. Locate the capital of the Confederacy. 



THE SOUTH RESOLUTE — JEFFERSON DAVIS 317 

Suggestions for Reading 

Guerber's Story of the Great Republic, pp. 167-174; W. P. 
Trent's Southern Writers, pp. 206-208 (Davis's Farewell Speech 
to the Senate). 

Problems for Further Study 

Compare the views of Jefferson Davis with those of Garrison, 
Webster, Calhoun, and Lincoln. Why was it natural for states 
that believed in nullification to believe also in secession } What 
state that believed in nullification refused to secede ? 



CHAPTER XVIII 
SAVING THE UNION 

The Problem : Will the Union be Maintained ? On 

March 4, 1861, the day broke fine and clear. The 
people of Washington were astir early. Lincoln was 
about to begin his great task. The whole nation 
waited anxiously for his inaugural address. Every 
one knew that he must make some answer to the 
supreme question : " Shall the seceding states be 
allowed to go out of the Union in peace .? " At 
the appointed hour Lincoln left his hotel and rode 
slowly along Pennsylvania Avenue to the Capitol. 
General Scott, the veteran of the Mexican War, fearing 
trouble, had carefully stationed regular troops along 
the way to the Capitol and about the building. 

The Union Is Perpetual and Must Be Preserved. 
In the presence of an excited crowd, the tall, wrinkled, 
and weather-beaten son of the West rose to deliver 
his epoch-making speech. A breathless throng hung 
upon his words. In a strong, firm voice, he answered 
the great question of the hour simply and earnestly. 
" The union of these states is perpetual. . . . No 
state upon its own mere motion can lawfully get out 
of the Union. ... I shall take care, as the Constitu- 
tion itself expressly enjoins upon me, that the laws of 

318 



SAVING THE UNION 



319 




Abraham Lincoln 
Photograph by Brady while Lincoln was President of the United States 



320 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

the Union be faithfully executed in all the states. , . . 
There need to be no bloodshed or violence, and there 
shall be none unless it be forced upon the national 
authority. The power confided to me will be used to 
hold, occupy, and possess the property and places 
belonging to the government and to collect the duties 
and imposts." In these unmistakable words he gave the 
answer to the perplexing question in the mind of every- 
one. He made no threats. He did not bluster nor brag. 
He quietly served notice that he would maintain and 
defend the Union. That was the meaning of his address. 

No Wrong Will Be Done to the South. Lincoln 
went on to assure the slave owners that he had no 
right and no intention to interfere with slavery in 
the states where it existed. 

The responsibility for starting a conflict, Lincoln 
said, rested upon the Southern leaders. " In your 
hands, my dissatisfied countrymen, and not in mine, is 
the momentous issue of civil war." He pointed out 
that the Southerners themselves would have to take 
the first step if war was to come. "You have no oath 
to destroy the government, while I shall have the most 
solemn one to 'preserve, protect, and defend it.' I am 
loath to close. We are not enemies, but friends. We 
must not be enemies." 

I. Lincoln's Measures for Saving the Union 

Sumter and War. For more than a month the 
nation watched breathlessly every move of the two 



SAVING THE UNION 



321 



Presidents, Lincoln and Davis. Perhaps, after all, 
the dreadful conflict might be avoided. Then suddenly, 
as in the case of the American Revolution, a single 
action, like that at Lexington, plunged the North and 
South into war. 

On an island in the harbor of Charleston, South 
Carolina, stood a United States fort occupied by regular 




The Bombardment of Fort Sumter 



troops under the command of Major Anderson. 
Supplies could reach the fort only by boat. The 
people of Charleston, of course, looked upon Anderson 
and his men as enemies and would not permit food to 



322 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

be sent to them from that city. The only way to 
supply the garrison was to send a ship from one 
of the Northern ports. This, however, would be re- 
garded by the Confederates in Charleston as an act 
of war. 

Nevertheless, Fort Sumter was one of the places 
belonging to the government which Lincoln had said 
he would " possess and hold." On April 8, Lincoln, 
much perplexed, decided he must act. He notified 
General Beauregard, in command of the Southern 
troops at Charleston, that he would send provisions 
but neither arms nor ammunition to Major Anderson. 
Beauregard a few days later called on Anderson to sur- 
render. The supplies had not arrived, but Anderson 
refused, even though starvation stared him in the face. 
Before sunrise on April 12, 1861, the thunder of a great 
gun and the crash of a shot announced the opening of 
the bombardment of Fort Sumter by the Confederates. 
For two days the battle raged, ending in the surrender 
of the garrison. 

The Call to Arms. Like an alarm bell in the dead of 
night, the news of Sumter aroused the North to arms. 
The great decision had to be made. In the argument 
many views could be held and advanced. In the armed 
conflict, there were only two sides — men had to be for 
or against the Union. Thousands who had opposed 
Lincoln and denounced his views rallied to his side. 
His old opponent, Stephen A. Douglas, called upon him 
to pledge his help to the bitter end. In every Northern 



SAVING THE UNION 



323 



city, village, and hamlet the people gathered to declare 
their loyalty to the Union. 

In the South, the same grim determination to " see 
it through " appeared on the faces of the people. The 
choice had been made. The war was on. There was 




The War in the East 



Wms. Eog. Co., N. Y. 



no turning back. The roll of drums and the tramp of 
soldiers told of the coming storm. 

On April 15, 1861, Lincoln issued his first call for 
soldiers. He asked for seventy-five thousand volun- 
teers. Their task was to aid in enforcing the law 
and retaking forts and places seized from the United 
States. Their term of service was to be for three 



324 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

months only. The North greeted the call by pouring 
out a flood of marching men. 

From Virginia to Missouri the two sections soon stood 
in martial array. In July, 1861, the first serious battle 
of the war was fought at Bull Run, in Virginia, some 
thirty miles from Washington. The Union troops were 
utterly defeated. Many of them fled in terror from 
the battlefield. Some of them did not stop until they 
reached Washington. This was a sharp and severe 
lesson to the North. An end was put to all hopes for 
a speedy " march on Richmond " and. a short war. 

Lincoln realized that he had a heavy task before him. 
He bent every effort to raise the men and the money 
and the supplies necessary for the great conflict. 
When enough men could not be secured by the volun- 
teer system, he resorted to the draft and compelled men 
to serve. He left no stone unturned in his labors to 
save the Union. That was the key to all he said and 
did. On the slavery question and all other questions, 
men were divided. Around the cry of " Save the 
Union," the North was rallied. 

The Blockade of Southern Ports. On April 19, 
1861, Lincoln took another important step. He issued 
an order closing Southern ports to foreign trade. 
This was a terrible blow to Southern hopes. The South 
was not a manufacturing section. It had planned to 
secure guns, ammunition, and other supplies from 
European countries, especially England, and to pay 
for them with cotton. 



SAVING THE UNION 



325 



The blockade was intended to stop this trade by- 
preventing vessels from entering or leaving the Southern 
ports. It could not be strictly enforced at first, because 
Lincoln did not have enough ships. As the Union navy 
increased in size, however, the blockade became stricter 
and stricter. In the end hardly a shipload of cotton 
could escape from a Southern state. The chief product 




The Battle between the "Monitor" and the "Merrimac" 

of the South could not be sold and therefore war sup- 
plies could not be bought. Only a few ships could slip 
through the net. 

A brilliant effort to break the blockade was made 
by the Confederates with an iron-clad ship, named 
the Merrimac. It was playing havoc with the wooden 
ships of the North, when another iron-clad, the Monitor, 
was built for the Union navy. In a famous fight, the 



326 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

two ships tried their strength. Neither was destroyed, 
but the course of the Merrimac came to an end. Some- 
time afterward it was broken up by its owners. The 
blockade of Southern ports was kept up steadily until 
the close of the war. 

Slavery at Stake. As the war dragged on through the 
weary months, the abolitionists of the North re- 
doubled their attacks on slavery itself. Some of 
them, at first, favored letting the slave states go in 
peace. Thus they sought to free themselves from all 
connections with slavery. Failing in this, they turned 
to criticizing Lincoln for not abolishing it. 

Lincoln Perplexed. The President was thus be- 
tween two fires. A great number of Northern people 
were not opposed to slavery, as long as it was 
confined to the South. The border states, Delaware, 
Maryland, West Virginia, Kentucky, and Missouri, 
were slave states and were yet in the Union. To make 
enemies of these states and of Northern friends of 
slavery generally was dangerous to the cause Lincoln 
had at heart — saving the Union. 

Attacked on the one side by the abolitionists and on 
the other by pro-slavery men, Lincoln patiently argued 
with both factions. To the former he replied in 
the summer of 1862 : " If I could save the Union with- 
out freeing any slave, I would do it. And if I could 
save it by freeing all the slaves, I would do it. And if 
I could save it by freeing some and leaving others 
alone, I would do that. What I do about slavery and 



SAVING THE UNION 327 

the colored race, I do because I believe it helps to save 
the Union." This summed up his firm belief regard- 
ing this matter. 

Waiting for the Hour. At the very time, however, 
when Lincoln wrote these words, there was lying in his 
desk a rough draft of a proclamation of emancipation. 
He was quietly awaiting the right moment to act. For 
more than a year the fortunes of war had run against 
the North. The South stood strong and triumphant. 
To free the slaves in such circumstances seemed like 
an act of despair. How could freedom be enforced while 
Southern armies seemed invincible ? Lincoln was pray- 
ing for a victory. It did not come as he hoped, but at 
Antietam, Maryland, in September, 1862, the Northern 
army so effectively checked the Confederate General, 
Robert E. Lee, that he retreated into Virginia to reform 
his forces. 

A Solemn Warning. On hearing the news of An- 
tietam, Lincoln called his cabinet together in Wash- 
ington. To this small group of advisers, he slowly read 
a remarkable document — a solemn warning that a 
Proclamation of Emancipation was coming unless the 
seceded states returned to the Union. It was a direct 
and pointed notice to the Secessionists that their 
slaves would be freed on January i, 1863, if they were 
still in arms and out of the Union. It left untouched, 
however, slavery in the border states that had not 
seceded and in the places occupied by the Union 
armies. 



328 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

On September 22, 1862, the document was published 
to all the world. The South, still confident that it would 
be victorious, received the warning with derision. The 
abolitionists were overjoyed. 

The Proclamation of Emancipation. January i, 
1863, arrived. The Southern states were still in arms 
against the Union. The time had come to 'Carry the 
solemn warning into effect. A great reception was held 
at the White House. At the close of the day, the 
President took a pen in his " much-shaken hand " and 
signed the Proclamation of Emancipation. 

The Abolition of Slavery. The Proclamation of 
Emancipation did not aboiish slavery. It merely 
freed the slaves in the districts under the Confederate 
flag. It was a war order. The President issued it as 
Commander in Chief of the army. The great work of 
destroying slavery completely was not yet accom- 
plished, but it was still on Lincoln's heart. The only 
way to put an end to it for all time was to amend the 
Constitution of the United States. Lincoln soon began 
to urge Congress to pass such an amendment. That 
required the approval of two thirds of the members 
of both houses. Only by hard labor was Lincoln able 
to win enough votes. Not until 1865 did the amend- 
ment pass Congress and go to the states for ratification. 
" Now," said Lincoln in his homely way, " the great 
job is ended." By December of that year three- 
fourths of the states had approved the Thirteenth 
Amendment. 



SAVING THE UNION 329 

Lincoln and His Opponents. All during the war 
Lincoln was worried by Northern sympathizers with 
the Southern cause. Some of them hoped the South 
would win — probably not many. Others thought 
the war unnecessary and foolish. Others disliked Lin- 
coln's way of waging it. Many such critics were arrested 
and imprisoned and this aroused their friends to attack 
the President. 

One of the bitterest critics of Lincoln's policies was 
Clement L. Vallandigham, of Ohio. He was out- 
spoken in his views and had numerous followers. In 
the spring of 1863, the Union general in charge of the 
Ohio district arrested him, and after a military trial 
imprisoned him. Vallandigham protested that he was 
loyal and that the arrest was unfair and without 
warrant. Lincoln himself doubted the wisdom of the 
arrest, but stood by the Union general. With grim 
humor, however, he banished the prisoner to the 
Confederacy ! 

When he was criticized for such actions, Lincoln 
replied : " Must I shoot a simple-minded soldier boy 
who deserts, while I must not touch a hair of a wily 
agitator who induces him to desert ? " Bent on saving 
the Union and the cause for which it stood, he was in no 
mood to treat tenderly an open friend of the South. 
In many cases, he was perhaps too severe, but he was 
also quick to forgive. In December, 1863, he even 
made a public offer to pardon, with a few exceptions, 
all those who would take an oath to support, protect, 



330 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



and defend the Union. He cherished no grudges. He 
sought no revenge. 

II. General Ulysses S. Grant 

A Commander of the Armies of the United States. 

Lincoln's great aid in the war was General Ulysses 
S. Grant. On March 3, 1863, Grant was made chief 

of all the armies to 
finish the war on the 
Confederacy. People 
who saw him at the time 
were surprised that Lin- 
coln should want to trust 
so much authority to 
him; he was so plain, 
simple, and unsoldierly 
in appearance. The truth 
is that Grant was as plain 
a man as Lincoln him- 
self. 

The Youth of a Famous 
General. Grant was of 
Scotch ancestry. His birthplace was Point Pleasant, 
Clermont County, Ohio, where, on April 27, 1822, he 
first saw the light of day. His father was a work- 
man skilled at tanning leather, and was able to give 
the son an education. From the age of five to the 
age of seventeen, young Grant spent most of his winters 
at school, learning reading, writing, and arithmetic. 




General Ulysses S. Grant 



SAVING THE UNION 331 

Ulysses wrote of himself, " I was not studious in habit 
and probably did not make progress enough to com- 
pensate for the outlay for board and tuition." 

Nevertheless, his father, denied the opportunity of 
an education himself, was anxious for the boy to go on 
studying. In 1839 he secured an appointment for him. 
at the United States Military Academy at West Point. 

Ulysses did not care for army life. He was not a 
" born fighter." He did not even look forward to a 
military career, but he did his work at the Academy. 
He took the hazings that came along and endured the 
jokes played on him. The boys, on seeing his initials, 
"U. S.," called him "United States" Grant, "Uncle 
Sam," and finally just " Sam " for short. He took 
little interest in military subjects and thought of becom- 
ing a school-teacher. 

Uncertain Years. Fate had other work in store for 
Grant. When the Mexican War broke out in 1845, he 
was a lieutenant in the Army. He did not believe the 
war was just, but he played his part as a loyal soldier. 
He said that when he first heard the sound of guns he 
wished that he had not become a soldier. Nevertheless 
he showed himself a brave man in danger and was 
promoted for gallantry. 

After this war was over. Grant had many unhappy 
years. He was for a time stationed in California. 
Then he left the army and tried farming, lumber cut- 
ting, teaming, and odd jobs. He seemed to fail at 
everything. A friend who met him in the streets of St. 



332 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

Louis in i860 scarcely recognized him because he was 
so shabby and discouraged with Hfe. He was " store- 
keeping " at Galena, Illinois, when the thundering 
guns of Sumter called him to arms again. 

Grant in the Civil War. Grant had a hard time 
finding a place in the army. At last on June 15, 1861, 
he was appointed colonel of an Illinois regiment. 
Before the end of the year he was promoted and placed 
in command of a large body of troops at Cairo at the 
junction of the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. 

In the West. Grant was soon in the center of a 
great movement down the Mississippi Valley — a 
movement of Federal troops intended to split the Con- 
federacy all the way to the Gulf of Mexico. This was 
to go on while the Army of the Potomac in the East 
was moving on Richmond. 

In the long campaign southward. Grant rose to fame 
and rank as a brave, determined soldier. He cap- 
tured Fort Donelson, fought battle after battle in 
Tennessee, sometimes with reverses, but, on the whole, 
moving forward. On July 4, 1863, he captured Vicks- 
burg after a long and terrible siege. A victory at 
Chattanooga followed in the autumn. New Orleans 
had already been captured by Admiral Farragut. Al- 
though other battles were afterward fought in the 
West, the work of " splitting the Confederacy " had 
been accomplished by the close of 1863. 

In the East. Lincoln had watched the events in 
the West and he decided that Grant was the man to 



SAVING THE UNION 



333 



•i^ 



o 



I N I S* 



N-KtvcT 




The War in the West 



Wms.Ei>«.Co.,N.Y. 



334 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

do what had not yet been done in the East ; that is, 
to overcome General Robert E. Lee's gallant Army of 
Virginia. General after general in charge of Union 
forces had failed at that task. Lee had been checked 
at Antietam in 1862 and defeated at Gettysburg the 
following year, but the Confederate capital was yet 
safe and his powerful army intact. 

General Grant had a high opinion of his foeman, but 
he believed that he could win by driving hard with 
an overwhelming force of men and supplies. With 
grim determination he began the drive and kept it up 
through terrible fighting for more than a year. He had 
an endless supply of soldiers and guns behind him. 
There could be but one outcome. Richmond was 
taken. The Confederate government fled in haste. 
The Confederate army melted away. On April 7, 
1865, General Lee's position was hopeless. Grant 
called upon him to surrender. 

An Historic Scene. On the morning of the 9th, 
Lee, seeing himself hemmed in on all sides, raised a 
flag of truce to arrange the surrender. Early in the 
afternoon the two mighty warriors met in a house at 
Appomattox to agree upon the final terms. Grant had 
not expected the end so soon and was not dressed for 
the occasion. He wore a rough and dusty soldier's 
blouse for a coat, with two plain shoulder straps to 
indicate his rank. In this simple garb the victor pre- 
sented a strange contrast to the conquered. General 
Lee wore a new and full uniform. He was a 



SAVING THE UNION 335 

handsome man, fully six feet tall and faultless in 
manner. 

General Grant has given us in simple words an ac- 
count of their meeting : " What General Lee's feelings 
were I do not know. As he was a man of much dignity, 
with an impassive face, it was impossible to say whether 
he felt inwardly glad that the end had finally come, 
or felt sad over the result and was too manly to show 
it. Whatever his feelings, they were entirely con- 
cealed from my observation ; but my own feelings, 
which had been jubilant on the receipt of his letter, 
were sad and depressed. I felt like anything rather 
than rejoicing at the downfall of a foe who had fought 
so long and valiantly and had suffered so much. . . . 
We soon fell into a conversation about old army times. 
He remarked that he remembered me very well in the 
old army ; and I told him that as a matter of course 
I remembered him perfectly. . . . Our conversation 
grew so pleasant that I almost forgot the object of our 
meeting. After the conversation had run in this style 
for some time, General Lee called my attention to the 
object of our meeting." Then they discussed briefly 
the terms of surrender. In a few moments a short 
agreement was written out and signed. The two brave 
foemen gravely shook hands and parted — Lee to end 
his days in private life; Grant to serve two terms 
(1869-77) in the high ofl5ce of President of the United 
States. 



336 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



III. General Robert E. Lee 

Lee a Member of an Old Virginia Family. The tall 
and handsome soldier in gray uniform who met General 
Grant on that ever memorable day was a fine repre- 
sentative of the Southern cause. He was of an old 

and honorable Virginia 
family. His father, 
Henry Lee, nicknamed 
" Light Horse Harry," 
was a gallant officer 
who served bravely 
under Washington in 
the Revolution. As a 
close friend, Henry Lee 
was chosen to deliver 
the funeral oration on 
the death of that great 
soldier and statesman. 
It was he who phrased 
the imperishable senti- 
ment about Washing- 
ton : " first in war, first 
in peace, first in the 
hearts of his country- 
men." 

A Perfect Gentleman. A son of Light Horse Harry, 
Robert Edward Lee, born in 1807, was to be the 
soldier-hero of the Confederate war for independence. 




Robert E. Lee, the Military Hero of 
THE Southern Confederacy. "Duty" 
WAS His Watchword. 



SAVING THE UNION 337 

In his youth he was, for a long time, the sole companion 
of an invalid mother. At her side he learned habits of 
gentleness and mercy which he remembered in peace 
and in war. "Duty" was his watchword. He disliked 
tobacco, avoided drink, and devoted himself to study 
with zeal. 

At the age of twenty-two, he graduated from West 
Point Military Academy, the second in his class, without 
a single demerit. Then he stood out above the rank 
and file as a tall, graceful, clean-cut, well-balanced 
youth. Two years later he married a granddaughter 
of Martha Washington and her first husband. She 
was the heiress of a great estate at Arlington which 
became the home of the Lees, 

In the Mexican War. For many years Robert E. 
Lee served well and faithfully in engineering work 
under the War Department. The Mexican War tested 
his courage on the field of battle. He came out with, 
wounds and honors. His chief, General Scott, de- 
clared that he had accomplished " the greatest feat 
of physical and moral courage performed by any in- 
dividual " during the campaign. Then followed more 
years of faithful service under the government. 

Loyal to Virginia. Lee watched with deep sorrow 
the steady drift of the country toward civil war. As a 
slaveholder, he was kind and generous to those who 
labored on his plantation. He hotly resented the 
assertion of the abolitionists that all slave owners 
were wicked and cruel. He knew that it was not true. 



338 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



He hoped that some way of gradual emancipation 
might be found, but as a loyal Virginian he waited for 
the decision of his state in such matters. No one 
regretted more than he did the crisis which accom- 
panied secession. 

Like scores of other Southern men in the United 
States army, he felt bound, first of all, by his allegiance 




Arlington, the Home of General Roberi L. hi.E 

to his native state. When Virginia left the Union in the 
spring of 1861, he answered the call of duty. Nearly a 
hundred years before, his ancestor had followed Vir- 
ginia when she declared her independence from Great 
Britain. On hearing that Virginia had seceded, Robert 



SAVING THE UNION 339 

E. Lee at once resigned his commission as an officer in 
the United States Army. He did this with anguish of 
heart. " Save in defence of my native state," he 
wrote, " I never desire again to draw my sword." 

Commanding the Army of Virginia. Virginia soon 
called him to her defense by offering him command of 
her armies. With a few simple and modest words, he 
accepted the trust. Jefferson Davis, a West Point 
man, had a firm confidence in the ability and char- 
acter of General Lee. All through the fateful years of 
war he relied more and more on the advice and support 
of the great Virginia officer. 

For four long years, Lee faced powerful Union armies 
on the Virginia frontier. He won victory after victory, 
most of them against great odds. The army officers 
of all nations have studied his operations and are 
agreed in holding him among the first generals 
of all time. When he attempted an invasion of the 
North, he was not as fortunate as in the defense of the 
South. He was checked at Antietam, Maryland, in 
1862, and he was defeated by superior forces at Gettys- 
burg, Pennsylvania, in 1863. 

After the disaster at Gettysburg, Lee spent nearly all 
his strength in defense. He made the Northern armies 
under Grant pay dearly for every inch of Virginia 
soil which they took, but he could not stop the pitiless 
drive of superior forces. The Confederacy behind 
him was crumbling. The western part was cut off. 
Supplies and men were steadily dwindling away. He 



340 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

was the commander of " a half-naked, half-starved, 
half-shod, and shrinking army." There was but one 
end. Lee tried all the desperate plans he could think of 
to shake off the closing grip. Every effort was vain. 
He was brave to the last minute and yielded the sword 
only when there was nothing left to do. 

IV. The End of Lincoln's Career 

Lincoln's Plan for Restoring the Union. As the 

Northern armies advanced slowly to victory, Lincoln 
turned over in his mind plans for reuniting the dis- 
tracted country. What was to be done with the South- 
ern leaders and the Southern states ? Lincoln steadily 
put away suggestions of hatred and punishment. As he 
said, he thought of malice toward none and of charity 
for all. He sought to bind up the nation's wounds and 
to achieve a just and lasting peace. Some cried out 
for revenge on Southern leaders who were captured. 
He refused to listen. Others demanded that the 
Southern states be treated as " conquered provinces." 
That, too, he rejected. He proposed to restore them 
to the Union as rapidly as a small number of " loyal 
citizens " could be found in each to set up a state 
government again. He was in the midst of this task 
when fate took it out of his hands. 

The Death of Lincoln. On April 9, 1865, General 
Lee had surrendered to General Grant at Appomattox, 
Virginia. The long war was virtually at an end. The 
next day the news ran through the country. Lincoln, 



SAVING THE UNION 341 

on the evening of the fifteenth, decided to seek at a 
theater some reHef from the heavy strain of care. 

Shortly after ten o'clock a stranger was seen to 
enter the President's box. In a moment a shot rang 
through the house, and Lincoln dropped forward in 
his seat. The assassin, an actor by the name of 
John Wilkes Booth, sprang upon the stage, waved 
a dagger, and disappeared. Tenderly, loving friends 
bore the President to a residence across the street 
where, in the morning hours of the following day, he 
quietly passed into his last sleep. The ship of the 
Union, so the poet Whitman wrote, had come safely 
into the harbor of peace, and the bells were ringing 
exultantly, but the great captain had fallen cold and 
dead upon the deck in that happy hour. Rejoicing 
over victory was turned to grief over the Lincoln 
tragedy. The gentle, kindly man who refused to treat 
his enemies harshly was gone. The work of " binding 
up the nation's wounds " passed to men less generous 
and less forgiving — ^men who insisted on keeping the 
Southern states under the rule of Northern soldiers 
for a long time. 

Questions and Exercises 

What great question was forever settled by the war between 
the North and the South ? Although he directed the war of the 
North against the South, it has often been said that Lincohi never 
thought of the people of the South as enemies. Why, therefore, 
do you think that the assassination, or murder, of President 
Lincoln was a misfortune to the South ? 



342 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

I. When a war Is begun, what usually happens to the dis- 
agreements among men on the same side ? Do you know of any 
cases in the recent World War in which people laid aside their 
less important quarrels as long as the war lasted, only to renew 
them when the war was over? Locate the "border states." 
What reasons would make the people of these slave states hesitate 
to join the Confederacy ? Locate Charleston, Fort Sumter, 
Bull Run, Antietam. What caused Lincoln to issue the Procla- 
mation of Emancipation ? In what states were the slaves de- 
clared free by this proclamation ? When and how was slavery 
finally abolished ? 

II. Would you say that Grant's life up to the time of the 
Civil War was a success ? What campaign of the British in the 
Revolutionary War are you reminded of by Grant's attempt to 
cut the Confederacy in two by a "drive" southward? Locate 
on the map each battle or siege mentioned in the text. What 
important Southern cities were captured by Northern forces dur- 
ing the war ? Which side was usually victorious in the earlier 
battles of the war ? It is sometimes said that great men often 
owe their greatness chiefly to their ability to pick able men to per- 
form important tasks under their direction ; is this illustrated 
in the case of Lincoln and Grant ? 

III. What kind of man was General Lee ? Compare Lee's 
early life with that of Grant, Lincoln, and Davis. Why is Lee 
considered one of the greatest generals in all history? Why was 
Lee's task as leader of the Southern armies an impossible one ? 

IV. What do you think of Lincoln's plan for restoring the 
Union ? 

Suggestions for Reading 

Guerber's Story of the Great Republic, pp. 174-236 (the Civil 
War) ; Hart's Source Readers of American History, No. 4, Romance 
of the Civil War, pp. 179-183 (Grant at West Point), pp. 189-191 
(Grant as a lieutenant), pp. 192-196 (Lee's letter to his boys). 



SAVING THE UNION 343 

pp. 257-259 (Grant's camp), pp. 266-269 (Stonewall Jackson), 
pp. 352-358 (the battle between the Monitor and t\\Q Merrimac); 
Foote and Skinner's Makers and Defenders of America, pp. 249- 
257 (Lincoln as President), pp. 258-273 (Grant), pp. 274-278 
(Lee) ; Frederick Trevor Hill's On the Trail of Grant and Lee ; 
Bradley Gilman's Robert E. Lee and Lovell Coombs' U. S. Grant, 
in True Stories of Great Americans ; J. G. de Roulhac Hamilton 
and Mary Thompson Hamilton's Life of Robert E. Lee ; Elbridge 
S. Brook's True Story of U. S. Grant; Nicolay's Boys'' Life of 
U. S. Grant. 

Problems for Further Study 

Compare the difficulties faced by Lincoln with those faced 
by George Washington ; by President Wilson. Are our greatest 
presidents always "war presidents"? Make as complete a list 
as you can of the results of the war between the North and the 
South. Try to imagine how different our later history would 
have been if the war had been won by the South. 



U-t 



CHAPTER XIX 

AN AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL ROMANCE 

The Problem : How to Use Electricity for Light and 
Transportation. During the Civil War, the factories 
and foundries of the North were busy day and night mak- 
ing supplies for the army. New mills sprang up as if 
by magic. New railways were built and cities flour- 
ished as their populations increased and their business 
grew. The age of great industry had arrived. 

The minds of men turned as never before to machin- 
ery and inventions. Restless energy and keen talents 
were devoted to improvements and discoveries. 

Among the essential problems of the industrial age 
was how to use electricity to light homes, offices, fac- 
tories, streets, and public buildings, and also to carry 
passengers and freight within and between cities. 

I. Thomas Edison's Early Career 

An Early Start. Passengers on the Grand Trunk 
railroad between Detroit and Port Huron in Michigan 
were astounded one day to see a weeping boy stand- 
ing on the platform at Mount Clemens, a halfway 
station. Tears rolled down the youngster's cheeks 
and his ears were red from a severe boxing he had just 

344 



AN AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL ROMANCE 



345 



received. Scattered all around him were the ruins of a 
printing press, glass jars, test tubes, bottles, and 
chemicals. 

The name of the youth was Thomas Edison. He 
was a newsboy on the railway and he had been whiling 
away his time in 
the baggage car 
making chemical 
experiments and 
printing a lilttle 
newspaper. A sud- 
den jar of the train 
had spilled some of 
his chemicals and 
set the car on fire. 
The enraged con- 
ductor put out the 
flames, boxed the 
boy's ears so hard 
that he was ever 
afterward very 
deaf, and then 
dumped him with 
his "traps" on the 
platform of the sta- 
tion. 

This pitiable lad was, years afterward, to help solve 
two of the leading problems of the modern industrial 
age. He was to apply electricity on a large scale to 




Copyright, iQii, by Harper and Brothers. 
Thomas Edison, the Newsboy, Printer, and 
Student of Chemistry 



From "The Boy's Life of Edison,' 
Meadowcroft 



by WiUiam H. 



346 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



lighting. He was also to use it in driving street cars 
and railway trains. He did countless other important 
things, but these were his principal services to the peo- 
ple of our time. 

The Rise of an Inventive Genius. Edison did not 
obtain his education in any great technical or engineer- 




Copyright, ion, by Harper and Brothers. 
The Birthplace of Thomas Edison at Milan, Ohio 
From "The Boy's Life of Edison," by William H. Meadowcroft 

ing college. Indeed he had very little schooling. His 
mother had been a teacher and she gave him his start 
at home in the town of his birth, Milan, Ohio. His 
family moved later to Port Huron, where, it seems, he 
spent just three months in school. 



AN AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL ROMANCE 347 

Youthful Experiments. Thomas took naturally to the 
study of serious books by himself and became interested 
in chemistry. He fixed up a laboratory in the cellar 
and devoted his spare time to all kinds of experiments. 
When he was eleven years old he went into business 
on his own account selling newspapers on the train. 

A Telegrapher. While playing around the railway 
station at Mount Clemens one day, he saved the life 
of the station agent's little boy at the great risk of his 
own. The grateful father offered to teach Edison 
the art of telegraphy, and the proposal was eagerly 
accepted. In this way, Edison turned from chemistry 
to electricity. He was not content, however, with being 
an operator. Though he wandered around the country 
for many years as a telegrapher, he was always trying 
to " make new things." 

Improvement of the Telegraph. In 1868 he took 
out his first patent and for many years gave his at- 
tention mainly to improvements in the telegraph. 
After he had made one of his inventions, he took it 
to a wealthy business man and asked him to buy it. 
Edison thought he ought to have at least ^3000 for 
it, but he was afraid to charge so much. When the 
man asked how much he wanted, he replied : " Well, 
suppose you make me an offer." Quick as a flash the 
answer came back : " How would ^40,000 strike you ? " 
In telling about the affair, Edison said : " This caused 
me to come as near fainting as I ever got. I was afraid 
he would hear my heart beat. I managed to say that 



348 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

I thought it was fair." Edison was paid the money in 
cash. Not knowing anything about banks, he carried 
it over to Newark, New Jersey, and sat up with it 
all night. The next morning he learned how to open 
an account and deposited the money in a bank. 

The Phonograph. After his great success in mak- 
ing ingenious improvements in the telegraph, Edison 
turned to other matters. He gave serious attention 
to the phonograph. Other men had experimented 
with talking machines and had made all the im- 
portant parts. Edison and one of his workmen de- 
veloped the idea and, in 1878, made a phonograph 
of their own. Edison shouted into it, " Mary had a 
little lamb." They put on another part, and turned 
a crank. " Mary had a little lamb," came back from 
the machine. The invention was a success. 

II. Electricity for Lighting and Transportation 

The Incandescent Electric Lamp. The first big 
work, however, was the invention of the incandescent 
electric lamp. Benjamin Franklin had learned that 
the lightning which illuminated the heavens was an 
electric flash. Other men, having learned how to make 
electricity by machines, sought a way of changing it 
into light. They invented the " arc lamp," which 
made light by " jumping " the electric current across 
a little space from one piece of carbon to another. 
Edison himself tried many experiments with " flaming 
arcs," as he called them. 



AN AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL ROMANCE 



349 



In a little while he became convinced that they were 
not well fitted for lighting homes and factories. So 
he turned his attention to making a steadier light by 
passing electricity through a fine filament enclosed 
in a glass bulb. For many weary months he and his 
men worked on the problem. At last on October 
21, 1879, he burnt to a coal a piece of ordinary sew- 
ing cotton thread, bent it into horsehoe shape, and 
sealed it in a glass globe from which he had pumped 




These drawings show the improvements which have been made in our methods of light- 
ing from the time people used candles to the present day. 

the air. He then turned a weak current of elec- 
tricity into the lamp and to his great joy it glowed 
brightly. For forty hours it burned. The victory 
was won ! 

The whale oil lamp had driven out the tallow candle. 
Kerosene oil had driven out whale oil. Gas had taken 
the place of kerosene for lighting streets and houses 
in cities. Now the darkness was to be banished and 
the night turned into day by the incandescent electric 
lamp. Try to imagine a world with no light but tallow 



350 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

candles or even gas, and you will see how great was 
Edison's service to mankind. 

A Central Electric Station. The lamp was invented. 
The next problem before Edison was to put it into 
stores, factories, and homes. That called for a big 
central power house to make electricity. It involved 
many difficult operations connected with putting up 
wires and sending the current around through hundreds 
of miles of wire. He mastered them all with the help 
of able assistants. On September 4, 1882, at three 
o'clock in the afternoon, he pronounced complete his 
first central power station in New York City. Steam 
was turned into the engines which drove the dynamos 
to make electricity and current was supplied to about 
four hundred lamps. 

It was another triumph for the inventor. He had 
worked night and day on the enterprise, sparing him- 
self no pains. He got down into the trenches and 
labored over wires and pipes. All sorts of accidents 
happened to discourage him, but some amusing in- 
cidents enlivened the hard struggle against difficulties. 
A ragman with a dilapidated old horse passed over a 
spot where there was a leak. As soon as the horse 
touched the electrified soil, he reared on his hind legs 
and started to run away. Some wag then suggested 
that it would be a good plan to buy up old horses, 
" electrify them," and sell them as racers ! 

The Electric Railway. It was Edison's special gift 
to improve the inventions of other men, and to make 



AN AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL ROMANCE 



351 



them work practically. This was as true of the electric 
railway as of the electric lamp. All his improvements 
were services of high order. 

Early Experiments. The first attempt to apply 
electricity to driving cars seems to have been made 
in Brandon, Vermont, in 1834. In that year a black- 
smith of Brandon made a circular electric railway with 
cars and exhibited them at Springfield, Massachusetts, 
and other cities. This 
little model was kept 
in running order until 
1900, when it was lost, 
with the sinking of a 
ship, on the way to 
the Paris exhibition. 

In 1 85 1 a big electric 
locomotive was tested 
on the Washington and 
Baltimore railway and 
attained a speed of 
nineteen miles an hour. 
So far, inventors had relied on storage batteries carried 
along with the cars to furnish the driving power. A 
few years later, a machinist in Kalamazoo, Michigan, 
devised a plan of furnishing electricity to the cars by 
means of a wire attached to distant batteries. In 1879 
a German firm exhibited in Berlin an electric locomo- 
tive and a train of cars driven by electricity supplied 
by a dynamo to a " third rail." 




Thomas Edison After he had Achieved 
World-wide Fame for His Inventions 



352 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

Edison's Triumph. After inventing his incandescent 
lamp, Edison, at his laboratory in Menlo Park, New 
Jersey, devoted his time to building an electric car. 
In 1880 his car made its first trip on a track about 
a third of a mile long. The New York Herald, re- 
porting the successful experiment, declared that at 
last there was found a locomotive " most pleasing to 
the average New Yorker, whose head has ached with 
noise, whose eyes have been filled with dust, or whose 
clothes have been ruined with oil." The era of electric 
railways had opened. 

III. Edison's Methods 

No Dependence on Luck. The most interesting 
thing about Edison is his patient work. He did 
not wait for luck. He was constantly looking for 
some practical problem already presented by some 
other invention. He studied the causes of former 
failures. Having found the causes, he devised the im- 
provements which were necessary to make successes 
out of failures. Moreover, after he had made money 
himself and interested capitalists in his enterprises, 
he built a great laboratory and put many skilled me- 
chanics to work on improvements. 

Edison labored tirelessly with his own hands. He 
employed men like himself, who devoted their very 
lives to invention. He was not satisfied with 
" good enough." He was ever searching for something 
better. 



AN AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL ROMANCE 353 

A Long Search for Improvements. For example, a 
strong substance was needed to make the filament 
for the incandescent electric lamp. Edison sent one 
man all the way to Japan to hunt for a special kind of 
bamboo. It was found and carefully tested. 

Edison was not satisfied. Another man was sent 
to explore the wild interior of Brazil for a species of 
palm that, he thought, might be better. He pene- 
trated the jungles of the Amazon country and brought 
back the palm. It was no better than the Japanese 
bamboo. 

Then two men were dispatched to explore Peru, 
Ecuador, and Colombia. One of them spent fifteen 
months in the wilderness "deserted by treacherous 
guides, twice laid low by fevers, occasionally in peril 
from Indian attacks, wild animals, and poisonous 
serpents, tormented by insect pests, endangered by 
floods, one hundred and nineteen days without meat, 
ninety-eight days without taking ofT his clothes." 
The daring adventurer, broken in health, returned to 
America having faithfully fulfilled his mission. 

Not yet satisfied, Edison sent a New Jersey school- 
master to search the tropical jungles of the Far East. 
Before leaving on his long journey the teacher drew a 
line on the platform of the railway station. He asked 
his little pupils to " toe the line." As they stood there, 
he told them that, starting east, he would go around the 
world and come to the mark some day from the other 
direction. A year later the children, who had awaited 



354 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

his home coming with eagerness, met him at the station 
as he returned from the west. A little girl led him up 
to the " toe line." Edison was there and greeted the 
traveler simply with the words : " Did you get it ^ " 
He had it ! After a long, hazardous, and costly search 
in all parts of the world, Edison was confident that he 
had the finest possible fiber. 

Edison's Co-workers. As we think of Edison, we 
must also remember that hundreds of other men, just 
as brave and just as patient, were making inventions 
of equal importance. In his day the typewriter, the 
airplane, the gas engine, the automobile, the oil engine, 
the self-binding harvester, and multitudes of other 
practical machines were brought to a high stage of 
perfection. To many of them he made contributions 
himself. 

Through the work of such men the basis was laid for 
American triumph in industry. Capitalists raised the 
money required to build the plants to manufacture the 
machines. Workmen, skilled and unskilled, were found 
to operate them. " American ingenuity " placed our 
country among the first industrial nations of the world. 

Questions and Exercises 

How did the Civil War affect industry and invention ? Name 
the greatest inventions that have been worked out in America; 
in other countries. Many contrivances that seem simple to us 
to-day were wonderful inventions in the ages when they occurred. 
The wheel, the lever, and the bow and arrow are examples of this. 



AN AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL ROMANCE 355 

What other famiHar objects must have been invented thousands 
of years ago ? 

I. How did the youth of Edison prepare him for the career 
of an inventor ? If a young man is not interested in mechanical 
contrivances, what are his chances to become an inventor ? 

II. Make a list of the inventions of Edison that are described 
in the text. Arrange them in what you consider the order of their 
usefuhiess, placing first that which you consider most important 
and last that which you consider least important. How many 
of these inventions require the use of electricity ^ Which do you 
think we could get along without more easily, steam or electricity ? 

III. What do you think the life of Edison tells us about the 
value of careful work ? Name several machines that were worked 
out not by one inventor alone, but by many. Why are most 
inventions the work of many men rather than of one man ? 

Suggestions for Reading 

Mowry's American hiventions and Inventors, pp. 85-89 (the 
electric light) ; Perry's Four American Inventors, pp. 205-260 
(Thomas Edison and his inventions) ; Rupert S. Holland's His- 
toric Inventions, pp. 233-260 (Edison and the electric light) ; 
William H. Meadowcroft's The Boy^s Life of Edison; Francis 
Rolt-W' heeler's Tho^nas A. Edison, in True Stories of Great Ameri- 
cans. 

Problems for Further Study 

Try to imagine what life would be like to-day if we were sud- 
denly deprived of the use of the inventions of the past fifty years. 
What persons in your neighborhood would be thrown out of 
work } Of what pleasures and conveniences would you yourself 
be deprived ? Make a list of possible future inventions. - 



CHAPTER XX 

THE NEW SOUTH AND CLEVELAND DEMOCRACY 

The Problem : Could the Democratic Party Be 
Restored? While the inventors were busy with ma- 
chinery, statesmen were busy with the problems of 
politics. The Democratic party had been shattered in 
the election of i860, but the members did not forget 
their old allegiance. Their party had grown up long 
before slavery became a public question and they wished 
to keep it alive after slavery had disappeared. They 
were as anxious as ever to elect a President and to 
carry out their ideas of government. 

The task before the leaders in the Democratic party 
after the war was difficult. The South had always 
been Democratic, but men who had taken a prominent 
part in the war were denied the right to vote and were 
excluded from Congress. In fact the Southern states 
were for many years governed by a few white men and 
the former slaves who had been given the right to vot^ 
and to hold office. It was not until 1870 that all the 
Southern states were given back their full rights in the 
Union. Not until 1877 were the last Federal soldiers 
withdrawn. 

Accordingly it was uphill work for the Democrats 

356 



THE NEW SOUTH AND CLEVELAND DEMOCRACY 357 

who sought to recover power. They did succeed in 
electing a majority of the House of Representatives 
as early as 1874; but they could not capture the 
presidency. The Republicans continued to hold that 
office. General Grant served for two terms, Ruther- 
ford B. Hayes for one term, and James A. Garfield 
was elected in 1880 but served for only a short time 
before he was assassinated by a man who had been 
disappointed in not securing employment by the federal 
government. Garfield was succeeded by Chester A. 
Arthur, the Vice President, who was, of course, a 
Republican. Still the Democrats were not discouraged. 
Their problem was to find a candidate who could lead 
them to victory. 

I. The Rise of Grover Cleveland 

The Youth of Cleveland. In their search for a 
winning candidate, the Democrats, in 1884, picked 
out a Northern man who had been remarkably suc- 
cessful in carrying Republican districts. He had been 
mayor of Buffalo and had risen to the office of governor 
of New York. His name was Grover Cleveland. He 
was the son of a rural clergyman in New Jersey — an 
earnest and devout man, not rich in this world's goods. 
The son, therefore, had to make his own way after he 
had received an elementary education in the common 
schools. 

The first opportunity that came to young Grover was a 
chance to work in a little store in his native village of 



358 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

Caldwell. This did not satisfy him very long, and he 
seems to have drifted aimlessly about until he was over 
eighteen years old. In 1855 he took up the study of 
law in Buffalo and began the career that finally brought 
him to the White House. 

His genial spirit and his simple habits won for him 
great popularity in Buffalo. In 1863 he was appointed 
to a local office. Seven years later, at the age of 
thirty-three, he was elected sheriff of Erie County. 
In both of these offices he gained a good name. Men 
said that he was " honest and fair." 

Mayor of Buffalo. Another step in his upward way 
was taken in 1881, when he was chosen mayor of 
Buffalo. This city was usually Republican and it 
was a real victory for a Democrat to carry it. Cleve- 
land took a strong stand on public questions. He 
gave close attention to his duties. He said that he owed 
it to the taxpayers to view the city government as a 
*' business establishment." Accordingly he thought it 
ought to be conducted on " business principles." 

Governor of New York. It was not long before 
Mayor Cleveland, of Buffalo, was known throughout 
the state of New York and even beyond the borders. 
In 1882 he was eagerly chosen by the Democrats as 
their candidate for governor. In the election that 
followed he was victorious by a large majority. Many 
men broke away from the Republicans and voted 
for him. 

As governor he continued his simple and business- 



THE NEW SOUTH AND CLEVELAND DEMOCRACY 359 

like habits. He attacked those who wanted to waste 
pubHc money, both in his party and outside. He 
vetoed bills which he thought extravagant. He stood 
bravely for what he believed to be the right. Thus 
he became known all over the country. 

Cleveland and Roosevelt. One of the striking fea- 
tures of his administration as governor was a contest 
over a law to prevent cigar-making in tenements. In 
the crowded districts of the cities it was a custom 
for people to make cigars in their homes. They took 
the tobacco from the warehouses and made it up in their 
living rooms and bedrooms. A commission which in- 
vestigated the matter found, in many cases, five or 
six adults and children living and working in one or 
two rooms. This was bad in every respect. It was 
injurious to health, retarded the education of the 
children, and cut the wages of regular cigar makers. 

To stop this sort of work, the cigar makers' union 
had a bill introduced in the state legislature. At that 
time there was a young man in the assembly deeply 
interested in such things, Theodore Roosevelt. He 
favored the bill and worked hard to secure votes enough 
to carry it. Then he appeared before the Governor 
to ask him to sign the bill. Cleveland was at first 
uncertain what to do ; but, after hearing both sides, 
he put his name to it, and it became a law. 

On many other occasions Cleveland and Roosevelt 
worked together. A celebrated cartoonist drew a 
picture showing the two men in the governor's room 



360 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

— Roosevelt holding a bill and Cleveland signing it. 
The artist entitled his picture " Governor Cleveland 
and Theodore Roosevelt at their work." 

II. Grover Cleveland as President 

The Campaign of 1884. As the election of 1884 ap- 
proached, the eyes of all Democrats were fixed on the 
governor of New York. There was a man who had 
worked his way up from humble circumstances. He 
was simple in his life and plain in his way of doing 
things. He had been elected governor of a great state 
by a huge majority, and had served the state with in- 
dustry and dignity. 

The New South. By this time the South was re- 
covering rapidly from the effects of the war. The 
ruined plantations were largely restored, and cotton was 
grown once more on a big scale. Former Confederates, 
with a few exceptions, were no longer excluded from 
Congress. The Southern whites had again come back 
to the position of leadership which they had enjoyed 
in older days. Cities, like Atlanta, were flourishing as 
centers of business and manufacturing. Cotton mills and 
iron industries were being started in various sections. 

Cleveland Elected President. With the South re- 
covering its former strength and with a forceful North- 
ern candidate in Cleveland, the Democrats were in a 
position to win a presidential election for the first time 
since 1856. Their opponents, the Republicans, selected 
for their nominee a well-known man, James G. Blaine, 



THE NEW SOUTH AND CLEVELAND DEMOCRACY 361 

of Maine. Blaine was a powerful leader, but he had 
many critics in his own party. Many of these voted 
against him. So it turned out that Governor Cleve- 
land was chosen President by a narrow margin. 




© Brown Bros., New York. 

A Glimpse of a Busy Street in Atlanta, Georgia, One of the Great Cities 
OF "The New South" 

Cleveland was so popular with his party that he 
was nominated again in 1888. The Republicans, how- 
ever, with Benjamin Harrison as their candidate, were 
victorious. Nevertheless, Cleveland was selected once 
more in 1892 and sent back to the White House for a 
second term. 



362 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



Civil Service Reform. During both his terms, Cleve- 
land had to wrestle with the " spoils system " that 
had been introduced by Andrew Jackson (see p. 204). 
Largely because of President Garfield's death at the 
hands of a disappointed office-seeker, Congress had 
passed in 1883 a law which provided that certain 

ofiices could be 
filled only by those 
who passed exam- 
inations. More- 
over, these office- 
holders could not 
be removed on ac- 
count of their polit- 
ical ideas to make 
room for mere 
" party workers." 
This was a begin- 
ning toward civil 
service reform. 

When he was 
first inaugurated. 
President Cleveland, like his predecessors, was be- 
sieged by party friends wanting offices. The Demo- 
crats had been out of power since 1861 and they were 
anxious to get the "rewards of victory" by having 
Democrats appointed to positions in the government 
service. Cleveland tried to stem the rush, but he was 
able to do little on account of the pressure. About 




© Pack, New York. 
j Grover Cleveland 

"Public oflBcials," he said, "are the trustees of the 
people." 



THE NEW SOUTH AND CLEVELAND DEMOCRACY 363 



all he could do was to protest strongly against the 
worst evils of the spoils system. He declared that " a 
public office is a public trust." He gave encourage- 
ment to those working for reform. 

Hawaii. In January, 1893, a revolution broke out 
in the Hawaiian Islands, and the Queen was deposed. 
American residents 
in Hawaii took part 
in this affair. The 
American flag was 
hoisted and a treaty 
was drawn up annex- 
ing the islands to the 
United States. 

The treaty had not 
been approved by 
the Senate when 
Cleveland was in- 
augurated the second 
time. He sent an 
agent to the islands 
to find out what had 
actually happened. 
The agent reported 
that Americans had 
interfered with the 

affairs of the Hawaiians. President Cleveland, there- 
fore, refused to approve annexation. In 1898, however, 
under President McKinley, the plan was carried out, 




HAWAIIAN ISLANOe^ 
(Anntz4d 1898) 



Wnn.Eag.Co.,N.Y. 



Alaska was purchased from Russia by the United 
States in 1867; the Hawaiian Islands were an- 
nexed in 1808. 



364 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

and the Hawaiian Islands became a part of the United 
States. 

The Venezuela Affair. In 1895 Great Britain and 
Venezuela were engaged in a dispute over the western 
boundary of British Guiana. Venezuela declared that 
England was attempting to take some of her territory. 
England replied that she was merely claiming her own. 
President Cleveland thought the dispute involved the 
Monroe Doctrine. Monroe had announced to the Old 
World that the United States could not allow any 
European country to seize new territory on the Ameri- 
can continents. 

Cleveland, therefore, sent to Congress a curt message 
on the matter. He said it was the duty of the United 
States to resist the attempt of England to take any 
territory that did not belong to her. Many people 
thought this was a " warlike utterance." While it 
did lead to some talk about war, the dispute was finally 
settled peaceably. Great Britain and Venezuela agreed 
to submit their claims to a certain number of eminent 
people chosen as judges. The judges heard both sides 
and decided the case, giving Great Britain nearly all 
she claimed. This method of settling a dispute is 
called " arbitration." 

Perhaps Cleveland, in using strong language, did not 
intend to raise any " war talk." There is a story to 
this efi'ect. When he finished his famous message of 
December, 1895, he showed it to his secretary. On 
looking it over the secretary remarked that it was 



THE NEW SOUTH AND CLEVELAND DEMOCRACY 365 

" pretty strong." To this the President replied, 
"This does not mean war; it means arbitration." 
Happily for both countries, it turned out that way. 

Last Days. When his work as President was 
finished, in 1897, Cleveland retired to Princeton, New 
Jersey, where he spent the last years of his life. He 
took no active part in politics ; but he wrote a great deal 
on public questions. 

Cleveland Maxims. In addition to good stories, 
Cleveland loved short and pithy sayings. He left 
behind several maxims that have been cherished ever 
since his day. Chief arnong them may be mentioned 
the following : 

" Public officers are the servants and agents of the 
people to execute the laws which the people have 
made." 

'* Your every voter, as surely as your chief magis- 
trate . . . exercises a public trust." 

" A true American sentiment recognizes the dignity 
of labor and the fact that honor lies in honest toil." 

" I shall be president of the whole country, and not 
of any set of men or class in it." 

" Public officials are the trustees of the people." 

" If you want to catch fish, attend strictly to busi- 
ness." 

Questions and Exercises 

Why was the election of i860 a great blow to the Democratic 
party ? After the Civil War was over, the white people of the 
South were only gradually allowed to vote and to hold offices 



366 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

under the government; what effect did this have upon the Demo- 
cratic party ? 

I. How was Cleveland's earlier political life good training for 
his duties as President ? What is meant by a progressive govern- 
ment official ? What reasons have you for thinking that Cleve- 
land was a progressive mayor and governor ? In what way was 
Cleveland generous and broad-minded in accepting advice from 
Theodore Roosevelt ? (Remember that Roosevelt was a member 
of another political party.) 

II. How did the election of Cleveland show that if a political 
party is to be successful its members have to stand together ? 
What is civil service? The "spoils system"-? Why is the latter 
bad for the country ? Find Hawaii on the map. What is meant 
by imperialism .'' Why was Cleveland unwilling to annex Hawaii 
in 1893 .'' Locate Venezuela and British Guiana. What do you 
think of Cleveland's course with reference to Venezuela ^ 

III. Explain the meaning of each of the sayings of Cleveland 
quoted on page 365. 

Suggestions for Reading 

Edward S. Ellis's Lives of the Presidents, pp. 194-202 (life of 
Cleveland) ; Guerber's Story of the Great Republic, pp. 300-304 
(events of Cleveland's administration). 

Problems for Further Study 

Review the history of the Monroe Doctrine (pp. 193-194), and 
show how it applied to the trouble with Great Britain over Ven- 
ezuela. Find out which political party has usually had the 
greatest number of voters in your state. State several beliefs or 
doctrines of that party. Do you yourself believe in these doc- 
trines .'' Give your reasons. Why should every voter know 
exactly why he belongs to the political party which he favors ? 
If we all followed the politicians blindly and allowed them to 
think for us, should we be a free people .'' 



CHAPTER XXI 

THE UNITED STATES AMONG THE WORLD POWERS 

The Problem : Can the United States Be an Isolated 
Nation? One night in 1898, the mantle of darkness 
had fallen over the harbor of Havana, The lights from 
the shore shone out across the waters. The old fortress 
at the gateway loomed up grimly against the sky. A 
few ships at anchor slowly rose and fell upon the swells. 

With startling suddenness, the stillness was broken by 
a terrific explosion, followed in an instant by another. 
A great battleship riding in the harbor burst wide 
open and a towering sheet of flame and smoke shot 
upward. A geyser of water leaped high into the air. 
The old town of Havana was shaken as by an earth- 
quake. With a roar and splash the ruins fell back 
into the deep, and silence reigned again for a moment. 
The American battleship Maine had been destroyed 
and two hundred sixty American sailors lay dead in 
the dark waters. It was February 15, 1898. 

This terrible explosion was the climax of a long series 
of events in Cuba. This island had been a Spanish 
colony since the days of Columbus. In 1895 the people 
had rebelled against the Spanish governor. A civil war 
raged, and frightful cruelties were committed by both 

367 



368 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



sides. As stories of the shocking deeds reached the 
United States, Americans were deeply moved by the 
dreadful things happening at the very door of their 
country. Moreover, American citizens were sometimes 
mistreated and American property in Cuba destroyed. 




© Underwood and Underwood, New Y ork. 

Burial of the "Maine" at Sunset 

Long after the Spanish War was over, the battleship Maine was raised from the bottom of 
the harbor at Havana, towed out to sea, and given a watery grave. H&re we see 
American vessels preparing to sink the hulk of the Maine in deep water. 

Could the United States refuse to take an interest 
in Cuban affairs ? Should this country merely look on 
and say, " What happens in the outside world is none of 
our affair" ? Should the people of Cuba, struggling 
to be free, be allowed to fall again under Spanish rule ? 
These were the questions that arose in the mind of 
every thoughtful person. Yet few favored rash or 



THE UNITED STATES AMONG THE WORLD POWERS 369 

hasty action. President Cleveland offered to help 
make peace between Spain and Cuba. He believed 
that the Cubans should be given complete self- 
government. He hinted that the time might come 
when the United States would have to interfere. 
Nevertheless, when he went out of office on March 4, 
1897, the knotty problem was still unsolved. 

I. William McKinley and the Spanish War 

An Ohio Statesman. The next President, William 
McKinley, who took up the Cuban problem in 1897, 
was a man of wide experience. He had served as an 
officer in the Civil War ; he had been a member of the 
House of Representatives ; and he had been governor 
of Ohio. 

Ancestry. He was the descendant of a Scotch ances- 
tor, "David McKinley, the Weaver," a settler in Penn- 
sylvania nearly two hundred years before. William's 
father was an iron founder in Ohio, the manager of blast 
furnaces, a man stout in body and of varied skill. His 
mother, of Scotch descent too, was a strong and thrifty 
woman who managed her household well. They were 
neither rich nor poor. They had had little educa- 
tion. Their only books were the Bible, Shakespeare, 
and Dante. Their son William, the seventh of nine 
children, was born at Niles, Ohio, in 1843. 

The Youth of McKinley. The youth had unusual 
educational advantages for a frontier boy. He attended 
an academy in Ohio, and at the age of seveilteen 



370 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

entered Allegheny College at Meadville, Pennsylvania. 
Illness and " hard times " at home soon forced him to 
leave. He was at work teaching school and helping in 
a post office in 1861 when Abraham Lincoln called for 
men to save the Union. Young McKinley answered 
without delay. At the age of eighteen the frail youth 
volunteered and for four long years served under the 
Stars and Stripes. For gallantry he was made a major. 
In the summer of 1865 he was mustered out to enter 
civil life again. 

McKinley first thought of entering the Methodist 
ministry ; but he gave that up and turned to the prac- 
tice of law. His fine and commanding presence and 
his soldierly bearing soon marked him out among men. 
In 1870 he married the daughter of a leading banker 
in Canton, Ohio. Soon afterward she became an 
invalid for life and his tender care of her added to his 
nature a strain of gentleness. " He was the kindest 
of men," many a friend has said of him. 

The Champion of Unpopular Causes. McKinley 
early took an interest in the public affairs of Ohio. 
The constitution of the state gave the vote to white 
men only. He believed that this was unfair to colored 
men, and he often spoke on the subject. When he 
thought he was right he faced hostile audiences bravely. 
In 1876 some miners engaged in a strike were arrested 
and charged with burning property. No other lawyer 
was willing to defend them. McKinley was not afraid. 
He thought that all were entitled to a fair hearing and 



THE UNITED STATES AMONG THE WORLD POWERS 371 

to justice. So he acted as their attorney in the trial 
and proved that most of them were innocent. For 
this service he refused to take any pay. 

In Political Life. A short time afterward he was 
elected a member of the House of Representatives and 
served from 1877 to 1891. There he won wide fame 
as the champion of a high protective tariff. He was 
the author of the tariff law of 1890 which was long 
known as the McKinley Act. He believed that Ameri- 
can industries should be defended against European 
competitors by high duties on imported goods. On 
this account Republicans began to think of selecting 
him as their candidate for President of the United 
States. His reputation was increased by his election 
as governor of Ohio. 

The Campaign of 1896. During his political life 
in Ohio, McKinley became acquainted with a manu- 
facturer and business man from Cleveland, Marcus 
A. Hanna. Between these two men a deep and lasting 
friendship sprang up. As the campaign of 1896 
approached, Hanna decided to do his best to make 
McKinley President. He wrote letters, traveled about 
and sent out thousands of circulars showing why 
McKinley was an excellent man for the high office. 
Hanna realized his fond hope. The Republicans 
nominated his friend in 1896. The Democrats chose 
as their candidate William Jennings Bryan, of Ne- 
braska. A hard campaign was then waged for the 
election — the hottest and most exciting since i860. 



372 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



When the returns came in, it was found that McKinley 

had won by a handsome majority. 

The War with Spain. One of McKinley's first 

problems was the trouble in Cuba. The Republicans 

had taken a stand on 
this question. They de- 
clared that Spain had 
lost control of Cuba. 
They said it was the 
duty of the United 
States to use its influ- 
ence to restore peace 
and "give independ- 
ence to the island." 

For almost a year 
AdcKinley exchanged 
notes with Spain. 
Then came the tragedy 
of the Maine which 
brought the United 
States directly into the 
dispute. Nearly two 

William McKinley, President of the months mOrC of UCgO- 
United States during the War with tiation foUowed. Fi- 
Spain ^ 

nally McKmley s pa- 
tience came to an end. He laid the issue before Congress. 
War Declared. On April 19, 1898, the anniversary 
of the battle of Lexington, Congress adopted the 
resolutions that led to war. It declared Cuba free 




THE UNITED STATES AMONG THE WORLD POWERS 373 

and instructed the President to use the forces of 
the United States to establish that freedom. This 
meant war. The land operations in Cuba were short 
and decisive. The foe was weak in numbers and 
equipment. This was fortunate for the Americans, 
because our country was utterly unprepared for war. 
The purchase and shipping of supplies were badly 
managed. Camps were poorly built. Soldiers died 
by the thousands of preventable diseases. The war 
taught severe lessons. 

Dewey at Manila Bay. The most spectacular events 
were on the sea. The battleship Oregon, then on the 
coast of Washington, made a long voyage around 
South America to join the fleet in Cuban waters, arous- 
ing the enthusiasm of the country. 

Admiral Dewey, stationed in Chinese waters, was 
ordered to proceed with his ships to the Philippine 
Islands, which had been held by Spain for more than 
three centuries. At daybreak on April 30 he was in 
Manila Bay with his fleet in good trim. " You may fire 
when you're ready, Gridley," coolly remarked Dewey 
to the captain of his ship. Then the memorable battle 
opened. In a few hours the Spanish fleet was utterly 
shattered. A ship was sent post haste to Hong Kong 
to cable the news home. On May 6 the people of 
the United States were astounded to learn of a great 
naval victory on the other side of the world. " Where 
are the Philippines t " asked many bystanders as they 
read the news. Some vaguely recalled their lessons in 



374 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



geography. Others remembered the marvelous voyage 
of Magellan. 

The victory at Manila Bay was followed by another 
nearer home. In July a Spanish fleet, which tried to 
escape from a Cuban port, Santiago, was destroyed by 




Wam. Eng. Co., N.T. 



The West Indies in the Spanish War 



American battleships. Every one now knew that the 
end of the war was near. 

Peace and New Territories. By midsummer, 1898, 
the United States was completely victorious. What a 
strange whirl of events had taken place in the world 
since Columbus and his little fleet first plowed the 
waters of the Caribbean ! Spain had lost the last 
remnants of her once proud empire in America as well 
as her most important colony in the East Indies. Cuba 



THE UNITED STATES AMONG THE WORLD POWERS 375 



was to become independent ; Porto Rico and the 
Philippines were held by the United States. 

Now the question arose : " What shall be done with 
the territories won from Spain ? " Some American 
citizens wished to annex Porto Rico and the Philip- 




© Brown Bros., New Yoi... 
A Porto Rico Sugar Mill 

Natives are unloading cane upon a carrier which conveys it into the mill to be ground up. 

pines to the United States. Others, opposed to this 
plan, said it was departing from American ideas to hold 
distant colonies inhabited by other races. In the end, 
Porto Rico and the Philippines became American terri- 
tories. The United States had become a world power. 



376 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

II. William Jennings Bryan 

Youth and Education. During these stirring days 
the leader of the Democratic party was WiUiam Jen- 
nings Bryan. Like McKinley, he was from the Middle 
West. He was a native of Illinois, the son of a 
prominent law^^er and a political leader of high standing 
in Marion County. The father believed in country life 
for boys, so he brought his son William up on a farm 
near Salem. 

The youth was taught at home by his mother until 
he reached the age of ten. He was then sent to a 
public school and after a short time to a neighboring 
academy. On completing his preparatory work he 
entered Illinois College, where he took honors in debat- 
ing and oratory. He chose the law as his profession, 
and in 1887, at the age of twenty-seven, he began 
practice at Lincoln, Nebraska. 

In Congress. Like many young lawyers, Bryan 
took a lively interest in politics. He was nominated 
by the Democrats of his district for the House of 
Representatives and elected in 1890. He served for 
two terms and made notable speeches on the tariff, 
the income tax, and other issues. He became con- 
vinced that there was not enough money in circula- 
tion, and began to advocate the coinage of more silver 
dollars. 

Candidate for President. At the Democratic con- 
vention in Chicago in 1896, Bryan suddenly sprang. 



THE UNITED STATES AMONG THE WORLD POWERS 377 

into national fame by a powerful speech. He captured 
the convention by storm. Old men said that never 
had they heard a man speak as this one spoke. In the 
excitement of the hour, he was chosen as the Demo- 
cratic candidate. For more than four months, he 
carried on a " whirlwind campaign." He toured the 
country day after day, speaking at crossroad towns as 
well as in cities. Though defeated, Bryan had become 
the first leader in his party. He was renominated in 
1900 and again defeated by McKinley. He made a 
third vain contest in 1908. The fates were against 
him, as they had been against Henry Clay. 

This, however, did not prevent Bryan from being a 
great power in his party. He had political opponents, 
of course, but few leaders had more warm and devoted 
friends. He reentered official life in 191 3 as Secretary 
of State under President Wilson. Finally he broke 
with the President over the controversy with Germany 
and resigned in 191 5. He retired to private life with- 
out losing his deep interest in public affairs. The 
efforts to do away with the evils of the liquor traffic 
made an especially strong appeal to him and he was 
a powerful force in securing the adoption of the 
Eighteenth Amendment prohibiting the manufacture 
and sale of alcoholic beverages. In the discussion of 
every great issue and in all elections, he continued to 
exert an important influence in the councils of his 
party. 



378 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

III. The New Territories and the Far East 

Independence or Self-Government. The experiment 
of governing the distant Philippine colonies was begun 
when peace was concluded with Spain. Over this 
matter, McKinley and Bryan had great differences of 
opinion. The whole affair was perplexing because a 
revolt against the American rule was started by the 
native Filipinos who claimed independence. Bryan 
thought it should be granted to them. He denounced 
our rule in the Philippines as contrary to American 
ideas. President McKinley opposed independence and 
favored a progressive and humane management of the 
islands. 

McKinley's Plan. His plan was as follows. The 
revolt should be put down first. Then military govern- 
ment in the Philippines should be set aside and civil 
authority established. Gradually the natives should 
be permitted to share in the government. Education 
should be introduced. For Porto Rico he had a similar 
program. His ideas were carried out step by step until, 
in both colonies, the voters were given the right to 
elect one house of the legislature. 

Nevertheless, the " Philippine question " came up 
at every presidential election. The Democrats con- 
tinued to favor independence for the Filipinos, though 
not for the Porto Ricans. In 1916 a step was taken in 
the direction of independence. Congress made both 
houses of the Philippine legislature elective by the 



THE UNITED STATES AMONG THE WORLD POWERS 379 

voters. It also declared that " it is, as it always has 
been, the purpose of the people of the United States " 




Wms.Eog,C«.,N.l. 



The Far East 



38o 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



to withdraw from the islands " as soon as stable gov- 
ernment can be established." The next year Congress 




© Underwood and Underwood, New York. 

A Philippine Schoolroom Showing Pupils at Work under the Direction 

OF AN American Teacher 

gave the voters in Porto Rico the right to elect both 
houses of the legislature. 

A Scene in Peking, China. In August, 1900, the 
people of the ancient Chinese capital, Peking, were 
startled by the sight of thousands of foreign soldiers 
pouring through the gates of the city. Banners were 
flying : Russian, Japanese, British, French, and German. 
The Stars and Stripes were there also, waving over a long 
line of American troops. What was the cause of this 



THE UNITED STATES AMONG THE WORLD POWERS 381 

commotion ? Why had the soldiers of so many 
nations marched upon the capital of the Chinese 
Empire ? 

The " Boxers." A few weeks before, some Chinese, 
known as the " Boxers," had savagely attacked the 




© Underwood and Underwood, New York. 

A Picture of a Chinese Watching Foreign Troops as They Marched into 
Peking, the Capital of His Country, in 1900 

foreigners within the city. The Boxers looked upon 
themselves as patriotic citizens because they wanted to 
expel all foreigners from their country. They murdered 
the German ambassador in cold blood. They drove 



382 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

all the foreign ministers and their families into the 
buildings occupied by the English officials, where they 
besieged them and kept them in peril of their lives. 
It was to relieve their countrymen that the troops of 
many nations invaded the city of Peking. 

The East and West Meet. This was only one 
dramatic event in the long history of China's relations 
with the European powers. The Chinese were an ex- 
clusive people. They had their ways of living and 
working and they did not care to learn new ways. 
They had had a civilization of their own for thousands 
of years before England or France had appeared as 
nations. They always looked with disdain upon the 
foreigners who came to trade with them. It was once 
their practice to compel the Dutch and English mer- 
chants to admit their inferiority by casting themselves 
on the ground before the Emperor's ministers. The 
pride and self-satisfaction of the Chinese made trade 
with them difficult. It was not until 1844 that the 
people of the United States obtained official rights to 
do business in certain Chinese ports. 

Foreign Powers Take Chinese Territory. The 
Chinese, however, had good reason to fear the 
foreigners. They saw the English, French, Germans, 
Japanese, and Russians encroaching step by step on 
their territory. They saw vast sections of their empire 
taken away from them and made colonies of other 
countries. They feared that the entire nation would 
fall under foreign rule. 



THE UNITED STATES AMONG THE WORLD POWERS 383 

China in Need of Help. The conduct of the Boxers 
in 1900 afforded a good excuse to foreign governments 
for taking more territory by way of collecting 
" damages." The United States, in this crisis, had an 
excellent opportunity to help the Chinese people. This 
was a pleasing service for John Hay, the Secretary of 
State, in charge of American foreign affairs, under 
President McKinley. 

" Nothing but an American." John Hay Is a very 
interesting figure in American history. In his veins 
there flowed Scotch, English, French, and German 
blood. As he humorously remarked once upon a time : 
" I was born in Indiana, I grew up in Illinois, I was 
educated in Rhode Island. In this bewilderment of 
origin and experience, I can only confess . . . that I am 
nothing but an American." As a young man he helped 
the President with his daily work and came to know 
him well. After Lincoln's death he helped to write a 
history of the great man whom he had loved and re- 
vered. Later he served as our minister to Austria, to 
Spain, and to England. 

The " Open Door " for China. John Hay was, 
therefore, no novice when President McKinley made 
him Secretary of State in 1898. As soon as the Chinese 
quarrel arose he sent a note to the other countries in 
which he laid down his famous " open door policy." 
He declared that the " territorial integrity " of China 
must be preserved. This meant that no more 
Chinese territory should be divided among the foreign 



384 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



powers. Then he said that all countries should enjoy 
"equal and impartial trade with all parts of China." 

The idea pleased the 
Chinese immensely 
and was finally ac- 
cepted by the coun- 
tries involved. 

Hay was surprised 
somewhat at the ex- 
citement caused by his 
" open door policy." 
He wrote to a friend 
in 1900 : "What a 
business this has been 
in China ! So far we 
have got on by being 
honest. ... I would 
rather, I think, be 
the dupe of China 
than the chum of the 
Kaiser." 

In declaring for " the open door," Hay merely pre- 
sented the popular American view. He frankly said 
that the " Senate and public opinion " would not 
approve the old diplomacy of " give and take." The 
people of the United States did not want to join in a 
scramble of the European nations to divide China. 
Hay knew well the feeling and opinion of our 
country. 




John Hay, Secretary of State, Advocate 
OF THE Policy of "The Open Door" in 
China 



THE UNITED STATES AMONG THE WORLD POWERS 385 

Questions and Exercises 

Why is the welfare of near-by countries always likely to be 
important to any nation ? Locate Cuba and Havana. Find 
from your geographies all that you can about the climate and 
products of Cuba. What important products do the people of 
our country get from Cuba ? 

I. We are told that McKinley served as a soldier in the Civil 
War. Make a list of the Presidents of the United States that 
at some time in their careers served as soldiers. Have most of 
our wars arisen suddenly, or has each been led up to by a long 
period of parleying or negotiation ? Trace the route of the Oregon 
in her voyage from Puget Sound to Cuba. How would this trip 
be made by a steamship to-day ^ Locate the Philippines, Manila, 
Hong Kong. Locate Santiago. What is a casualty f The 
American Navy suffered remarkably few casualties in the Spanish 
W^ar, while the army suffered considerable losses. Can you sug- 
gest the reason for this ? 

n. What ideas of William Jennings Bryan have been ac- 
cepted by the American people ? What rejected ? 

HL What new responsibilities did the United States under- 
take as a result of the Spanish War .? How has she discharged 
these responsibilities ; that is, has she done her duty by the new 
lands that came under her control ^ In what ways have we shown 
ourselves to be good friends of China ^ Explain how it happens 
that China, the most populous country in the world, has been 
to a great extent at the mercy of the Western nations. 

Suggestions for Reading 

Alma Holman Burton's Builders of Our Nation, pp. 236-251 
(William McKinley) ; Ellis's Lives of the Presidents, pp. 210-220 (Mc- 
Kinley) ; Foote and Skinner's Makers and Defenders of America, 
pp. 323-329 (Admiral Dewey and the Spanish War) ; Gordy's 
American Leaders and Heroes, pp. 314-326 (leaders in the Spanish 
2 c 



386 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

War) ; Alexander S. Twombly's Hawaii and Its People, J. F. 
Seabury's Porto Rico, and Adeline Knapp's The Story of the Philip- 
pines in the series of The World and Its People. 

Problems for Further Study 

Why has a strong navy become more necessary since we ac- 
quired territory in distant portions of the world ? How during 
the World War did Cuba show her gratitude to the United States 
for freeing her from the misrule of the Spanish ? 



CHAPTER XXII 

AN AMERICAN MAN OF LETTERS— MARK TWAIN 

The Problem : How to Create an American Spirit. 

America is a vast country. There are tens of millions 
of people in it. They represent nearly all the races 
and nationalities of the earth. They are scattered 
from the Atlantic to the Pacific, across three thousand 
miles of plain, mountain, valley, and desert. They are 
engaged in hundreds of occupations. Whole sections 
are given over almost entirely to manufacturing. Other 
sections are devoted to farming. Still others are con- 
cerned mainly with mining. To weld all these peoples 
and sections into one unified nation with a common 
spirit was a peculiar problem of the nineteenth 
century. Many things worked for unity : schools, 
churches, railroads, magazines, newspapers, and the 
telegraph. 

Authors of national reputation feed the national 
spirit in a very special sense. Writers of local and 
sectional fame help by portraying to the rest of the 
country the people of the region in which they live ; but 
the author who touches the heart of the whole nation 
makes everybody akin. He speaks a common language. 
He tells stories which all read, laugh over, or weep over. 

387 



388 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



He pictures strong and simple characters that inspire 
us to better deeds. He draws us all together around 
common humanity and common notions of right and 
wrong. It is not often that such writers appear. They 
are born, not made. Happy is the nation that is 

blessed with one or more 
in every generation. 

Mark Twain As a Na- 
tional Writer. Many 
things conspired to make 
Samuel L. Clemens or, 
as he is popularly known, 
Mark Twain, a national 
writer. His life was truly 
American ; it is the story 
of the rise of a poor and 
humble boy to world- 
wide honor. His educa- 
tion was purely American. 
Little of it did he get at 
school. Most of it he 
got in " the university of 
hard knocks," struggling 
for a living in different 
parts of the country. Not until he was grown did he 
travel abroad or learn to use any foreign tongue. In 
his wanderings he came to know all sections of the 
United States : South, West, North, and East. 

The subjects of most of his stories are American 




© Brown Bros., New York. 

Mark Twain, Whose Youth is De- 
scribed IN "Huckleberry Finn" 



AN AMERICAN MAN OF LETTERS — MARK TWAIN 389 

boys and girls, men and women. He did not discover 
them by studying older story books of different times 
and countries. He found stories all about him in the 
lives, words, and deeds of plain Americans. The 
language in which he wrote is the language of the 
people, — clear, simple, and strong. The proof that 
Mark Twain is a national writer is found in the fact 




Mark Twain's Birthplace in Florida 

that in every part of the country and among all kinds 
of people his books are read and enjoyed. 

The Early Training of a National Writer. In the 
history of Mark Twain's ancestors there is an American 
story also. They first settled in the colony of Virginia. 
Some of them later moved over into Kentucky and 
Tennessee. His father, a lawyer and merchant of 
little property, migrated from Tennessee into Missouri, 



39© A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

settling first in Florida, where Samuel was born in 
1835, and then in the Mississippi River town of 
Hannibal. If any one wishes to know what the life of 
young Samuel Clemens was he can read about it in the 
story of Tom Sawyer. That book is an exact picture 
of Mark Twain's boyhood. There was little of school 
in it. There was more of hunting, fishing, boating, and 
rough and tumble play. 

The free and easy life of Samuel Clemens came 
suddenly to an end when he was a mere boy. His 
father died, and it fell to his lot to help to earn a living 
for the family. At the age of twelve he was apprenticed 
to a printer for his board and clothes — " more board 
than clothes " he laughingly remarked long afterward. 
After working for some time at this, he joined his two 
brothers in printing a little newspaper in Hannibal. 
At the age of sixteen he was writing funny stories of 
life in that neighborhood. 

"Wandering Years. Soon Samuel grew tired of the 
little Missouri town and, when only seventeen years old, 
he began his wanderings. He went to New York in 
1853 and worked one hot summer in a printing office. 
He tried printing in Philadelphia, made a trip to 
Washington, and some time afterward turned up in 
Keokuk, Iowa, where his roving brother, Orion, had a 
print shop. A short stay in Keokuk satisfied Samuel. 
He next tried Cincinnati, where he worked at his trade 
for one winter. In the spring the call of the big 
world brought him out of the print shop. This time 



AN AMERICAN MAN OF LETTERS — MARK TWAIN 391 

he was struck with " the South American fever." In 
April, 1857, he went on a steamboat to New Orleans, 
where he expected to take a ship. 

Life on the Mississippi. The trip proved to be a 
turning point in his life. The Ohio and Mississippi 
rivers were then fairly alive with steamboats. Be- 
tween Cincinnati, Louisville, St. Louis, and New 
Orleans, and other points on this great waterway boats 
plied to and fro. Great supplies of corn, wheat, bacon, 
cotton, and other produce were collected on the way 
down and delivered to the ocean-going ships at New 
Orleans. 

With the cargoes went all kinds of passengers. 
English, Irish, and Germans, as well as people from the 
Eastern states, all looking for homes in the West 
and South, went by rail to Pittsburgh and took the 
water route the rest of the way. Gamblers, robbers, 
fighting men, and restless vagabonds also sailed down 
the stream in search of adventure and, perhaps, for- 
tunes. Gangs of slaves, bought in Kentucky or Ten- 
nessee, were " sold down to N'Orleans," and carried 
on the steamers to their distant homes. There were 
boat races as exciting as pirate tales. Frequently the 
boilers of steamboats blew up, destroying crew, captain, 
and passengers. Fires often broke out as the sparks 
flew from the burning wood in the furnaces. Some- 
times a big boat struck a "snag," — that is, a log or 
old tree in the current, — tore a terrible hole in the 
hull, and sank to the bottom. 



392 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



The River Pilot. On his way down the Mississippi, 
the young Samuel Clemens became fascinated with the 
excitement. As a boy in Hannibal he had looked with 
admiring eyes upon the pilots of the " mighty steam- 
boats." Nothing seemed grander to him than the work 
of steering one of them up and down the river from 




River Boat on the Mississippi 

town to town. Now he was over twenty-one and his 
own master. The old craving seized him. As the 
steamer plowed Its way through the turbid waters, 
he idled around the pilot house and struck up an 
acquaintance with the pilot. He begged the officer to 
teach him the trade, and finally with much joy won 
his consent. 

Then and there the young man began a life on the 



AN AMERICAN MAN OF LETTERS — MARK TWAIN 393 

river that lasted for more than two years. While 
piloting boats, he met his first great tragedy. His 
younger brother, whom he loved with all his heart, 
was killed in a steamboat explosion. For forty-eight 
hours the frantic Mark labored at the bedside of the 
poor bruised and burned boy, only to see him sink into 
death. The sorrow of that hour gave a tinge of sad- 
ness to his whole nature. 

The pictures of those exciting adventures were so 
fixed in his mind that he never forgot them. Many of 
them are drawn in his Life on the Mississippi. 

Roughing It in he Far West. When the Civil War 
commenced, Orion Clemens, the wandering printer, 
was appointed secretary of the territory of Nevada. 
He persuaded his younger brother to go West with 
him. So it happened that the Mississippi pilot saw 
another part of the great world, the mining camps of 
the distant West. In a famous book, Roughing It, 
Samuel has told us, with a touch of fancy, of course, 
about his journey overland and his experiences as a 
miner. Life in a mining camp was as exciting as life 
on the river. Men tramped the country over, they 
dug deep pits, they washed sand by the rivers. 
Everywhere they hunted for silver and gold. Some 
found fortune ; others, poverty and death. They 
drank hard and quarreled much. Shooting affrays 
were more common than boiler explosions on the river. 

Newspaper Writing. When about overcome by 
poverty, Samuel luckily secured a position as a writer 



394 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

on a newspaper in Virginia City, Nevada. It was while 
he was thus employed that he began to sign his name 
" Mark Twain." This was a boating term which men 
used as they sounded the depth of the river, counting 
the marks as the line and sinker went down toward the 
bottom. His articles began to attract attention on the 
Pacific coast. His new name became a household 
word, and his boyhood name, Samuel Clemens, was 
almost forgotten. Everybody spoke of him as " Mark 
Twain." 

From Virginia City, Samuel went to San Francisco 
to work on a newspaper. It was while at the Golden 
Gate that he wrote a story which set all the country 
laughing. It was the story of " the jumping frog." 
Two men held a contest to find out which of two 
frogs could jump the farther. The winner, a shrewd 
schemer, was successful because he filled the other man's 
frog with heavy shot. This tale was written up by Mark 
at length and with a flourish. It was published in New 
York in 1865 and then reprinted all over the country. 
As one of Mark's friends wrote, it set " at least a 
million homes " laughing. 

Mark Twain in the East. In January, 1867, the 
author of the jumping frog story appeared in New York 
to try his luck. First, he announced a lecture in 
Cooper Union, one of the popular assembly halls of the 
city. Disaster almost caught him. Only a few tickets 
were sold ; but a shrewd manager sent out hundreds of 
free tickets to the school-teachers of the city. The 



AN AMERICAN MAN OF LETTERS — MARK TWAIN 395 

house was crowded and Mark Twain kept the people 
roaring with laughter until " they were too weak to 
leave their seats." His future as an American humorist 
was established. 




Mark Twain's Home in Hartford, Conn. 

He was soon engaged to make a trip to Europe and 
write his impressions. His book, The Innocents Abroad, 
made millions of Americans laugh — and think about 
Europe. He then entered the newspaper business in 
Buffalo, lectured at home and abroad, and finally settled 



396 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

down at Hartford, Connecticut, in 1874. For many 
years he was busy with travels, lectures, articles, stories, 
and books. 

Honors of every kind were showered upon him. 
The greatest people in the world were happy to see 
and hear him. He was able to make even the stern, 
unbending General Grant shout with laughter at 
a great banquet in Chicago in 1879. In a joyful 
letter to his wife, Mark tells of this triumph. " Do 
you know, General Grant sat through fourteen speeches 
like a graven image, but I fetched him ! I broke him 
up utterly ! He told me he laughed till the tears came, 
and every bone in his body ached. . . . The audience 
saw that for once in his life he was knocked out of his 
iron serenity." 

Universities conferred honorary degrees upon Mark 
Twain. Even old Oxford, in England, made him a 
" doctor of letters." When this recognition of his 
world fame came to him, he replied : " I don't know 
why they should give me a degree like that. I never 
doctored any literature. I wouldn't know how." He 
was received in Oxford by students and teachers with 
the highest honors. The papers said that no prince or 
poet or military hero was ever cheered more heartily 
in that ancient city. 

Soon afterward he settled in his home near Redding, 
Connecticut, where he spent his last years. On a 
spring day in 1910 he died peacefully. The whole 
world, that had laughed with him, now wept. The 



AN AMERICAN MAN OF LETTERS — MARK TWAIN 397 

printer boy from Missouri had captured the heart, 
not only of America, but of mankind. 

Some of Mark Twain's Books. Of Mark Twain's 
many volumes several are known and read the world 
over, but only a few can be mentioned here. They are, 
perhaps, the most typically American. 

Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn. The first of these 
two famous books was begun some time in 1874 and 
finished the following year. Mark worked hard at 
it, for it was the story of his own boyhood — with some 
lively touches added here and there. He always 
thought of it as his autobiography. Strange to 
say, this story, which is read by boys in every clime, 
was not written especially for them. That, at least, 
is what Mark Twain himself declared : " It is not a 
boy's book at all. It will only be read by adults. It 
is only written for adults." Nevertheless it was sold 
by the thousands. It was translated into a dozen or 
more languages. Hungarian and Russian boys read 
it with as much interest as boys on the Mississippi 
River. 

Pleased with the success of Tom Sawyer, Mark 
Twain began another book about a boy, the next year. 
He spoke of it first as " Huck Finn's autobiography." 
The story did not come easily into his mind. He 
would write a bit and lay it aside for a better day. It 
dragged along until finally, in 1884, he had it ready for 
the printer. Huckleberry Finn, like the companion 
volume, Tom Sawyer, had an astounding success. 



398 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

Curious to relate, a library in New England refused to 
allow it to be put on the shelves, on the ground that it 
was " trash." This made Mark laugh heartily, for it 
advertised the book. 

Into his ingenious book, A Yankee at the Court 
of King Arthur, Mark Twain put some of his deepest 
thinking. It was a " skit " on the English monarchy 
and upper classes. Underneath, it was a plea for the 
common people to have a good chance in the world 
to show what they could do. Some English friends 
were indignant over the book. In fact, the educated 
people in England were said to view it as an insult. 
They accused Mark Twain of a lack of reverence for 
the upper classes. To this Mark replied : " I have 
never tried in even one single instance to help cultivate 
the cultivated classes. I was not equipped for it, 
either by native gifts or training. And I never had 
any ambition in that direction, but always hunted for 
bigger game — the masses." 

It is impossible to review here all Mark Twain's 
writings ; but mention must be made of one more book, 
The Prince and the Pauper. The scene of this tale, too, 
is laid in England. A pauper boy and the little Prince 
of Wales were suddenly exchanged, and each lived for a 
time the life of the other. The Prince experienced 
the bitter poverty from which the poor boy had suffered 
and was beaten by cruel officers of the law. Here 
again Mark Twain had a purpose. His idea was to let 
the young Prince learn something by having penalties 



AN AMERICAN MAN OF. LETTERS — MARK TWAIN 399 

inflicted upon himself and by seeing others cruelly 
treated. Though written about boys and for them, it 
contained wisdom which the great statesman will do 
well to ponder. Mark took deep pleasure in writing it 
and was sorry when it had to be finished. 

Mark Twain As a Philosopher. Most people, per- 
haps, think of Mark Twain as a writer of funny stories. 
That does him a deep injustice, though mankind needs 
laughter as much as sunshine. Mark Twain was more 
than a story teller. He understood the life of the people 
in the Middle West, the South, and the Far West — 
almost everywhere in fact, and he is their historian. 
Like Benjamin Franklin, he is more ; he is a philosopher, 
for he deals with the problems of life and helps us 
to face them bravely. He is a moralist, for he shows 
how all, great and humble, have endless chances in 
the world to do good. We must laugh with Mark 
Twain, but we also must think with him. 

To the end of his days, he kept alive in his heart a 
strong sympathy for the sufferings of mankind. He 
laughed at human follieSj but he always longed to see a 
happier and better world. The last letter that he ever 
wrote was about a library which he planned to give to 
the little Connecticut village in which he died. 

" Doubt not behind that mask 
There dwelt the soul of a man 
Resolute, sorrowing, sage. 
As sure a champion of good 
As ever rode forth to the fray." 



400 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

Questions and Exercises 

Why do you suppose that the story of Samuel Clemens has 
been chosen from among the many lives of American writers to 
be told here ? Few people consider him the greatest American 
author. What facts in his life and what quality of his writings, 
then, make the story of "Mark Twain" so interesting? Com- 
pare the early life of Samuel Clemens with that of Benjamin 
Franklin and that of Lincoln. Later during your course at school 
you will learn of the lives of other writers. How many of these 
can you name now ? What books have you read by American 
authors ? What other American writers besides Clemens have 
been named in this history ? 

Suggestions for Reading 

F. J. Snell's Boys Who Became Famous, pp. 1 85-191 (Samuel 
Langhorne Clemens) ; Albert Bigelow Paine's The Boys^ Life of 
Mark Twain; Mark Twain's The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, 
The Adventures of Tom Sawyer, The Prince and the Pauper. 



CHAPTER XXIII 

WOMEN AND HUMAN WELFARE 

The Problem : How Can Women Make Their 
Hvmianity Count in Public Affairs? "Woman's place is 
in the home," is an ancient saying. For many centuries 
she was there — when she was not at work in the field. 
The care of children and the sick and the feeble called 
chiefly for qualities of mercy, sympathy, and gentleness. 
The man as hunter and warrior especially needed quali- 
ties of prowess and force. 

Changes in Woman's Work. In the long course of 
time many changes came about in the work of both 
man and woman. In the early days of human history 
man was mainly a warrior and a hunter. In our day 
he is mainly engaged in industry, business, or farming, 
and is only occasionally a warrior. The work of 
woman has changed also. Her labors were once per- 
formed entirely in and about the home, where she 
worked hard at spinning, weaving, raising crops, and 
doing all sorts of chores in addition to taking care of 
the household. In modern life the labor of millions of 
women is performed largely outside the home. They 
are in industry, in business, in banks, in schools, and 
in other places where the world's work is carried on. 

2d 401 



402 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

Women in History. As history ceases to be a mere 
record of war and government and becomes a true 
story of mankind, increasing prominence will be given 
in its pages to women. Indeed, chapters could have 
been set aside in this book for the women of America 
in early days. They would, however, be quite different 
from the chapters devoted to the work of men. They 
would deal less with politics and war, and more 
with industry, education, humane work, and moral 
conduct. 

It is well known that the women worked as hard as 
the men in conquering the great wilderness of North 
America. Women helped to transform the rough and 
disorderly frontier into civilized and peaceful communi- 
ties. In every war they made sacrifices, aided the 
soldiers, collected supplies, looked after the wounded 
and sick, and did their full measure of " war work." 
This is just as true of the American Revolution as of 
the World War of our own time. 

When factories were first built, women rendered 
great service in industry. They produced nearly all 
the cloth both before, and for a long time after, spinning 
by machinery was introduced. A list of articles made 
in the United States in 1832 by women included nails, 
books, barrels, boats, buttons, brushes, cheese, combs, 
twine, chairs, clocks, goldleaf, hats, cigars, and many 
more commodities. 

Women in Modern Times. As they were drawn more 
and more into public affairs, women in general began 



WOMEN AND HUMAN WELFARE 403 

to think about public questions which were being dis- 
cussed : prison reform, education, care of orphans, the 
management of hospitals and asylums, treatment of 
persons accused of crimes, and a thousand other matters 
of a similar character. It was not long before spokes- 
men for women arose to express their views on all 
questions of public concern. The history of mankind, 
as well as of women, entered upon a new phase. 

I. Binding up the Wounds of War 

Clara Barton. In olden times the wounded in war- 
fare received little attention. No regular nursing was 
furnished. The soldiers took care of one another in a 
rude fashion. Sometimes, women in the neighbor- 
hood of battlefields volunteered to help. The wonder- 
ful work of supplying complete nursing service on a 
large scale was undertaken in our Civil War by Clara 
Barton. 

Youth. This remarkable woman was from Massa- 
chusetts. In her family there were great traditions of 
human helpfulness. Her ancestors had been among 
the first to protest against the torture and hanging of 
supposed witches at Salem. In her youth she had 
nursed a sick playmate for two long years. Her gentle 
hands and soft voice soothed the child and spread com- 
fort and peace all about her. For eighteen years she 
taught school and won the hearts of her pupils by her 
kindly ways. 



404 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



Ready to Serve. Clara Barton was in Washington 
in i86i when the Civil War called her to the battlefield. 
As an abolitionist, she sympathized deeply with the 
North when she saw that war was bound to come. 

Hearing that Fort 
Sumter had been 
fired upon, she ex- 
claimed : " I think 
the city [Washing- 
ton] will be attacked 
within the next 
sixty days. If it 
must be, let it come, 
and when there is 
no longer a soldier's 
arm to raise the 
Stars and Stripes 
above our Capitol, 
may God give 
strength to mine." 
Into the Danger 

Clara Barton, Friend and Helper of the Zone. it WaS nOt 
Soldiers in the Civil War and Founder of many months be- 
THE American Red Cross r i r i 

lore there was ngnt- 
ing in the neighborhood of Washington. Wagons and 
trains bearing the wounded began to stream into the 
city. Clara Barton pressed to the front to offer her 
services. At first she was rebuffed. Men did not want 
women to " mix in such aflFairs," and they thought 




WOMEN AND HUMAN WELFARE 405 

women could not endure the horrors of the battlefield 
and hospital. 

Clara Barton was not daunted by the rebuffs. She 
forced the government and the army officers to recog- 
nize woman's right to enter the field hospitals. She 
went to the front near the firing line and helped 
in collecting the wounded from the field. She dashed 
back and forth on horseback in the danger zone 
ministering to her " boys, " as she called the soldiers. 
She shared the hardships of the march, aided in 
collecting and bringing up supplies, found nurses 
and trained them, and hunted through the hospitals 
for missing men. In her errands of mercy she made 
no distinction between soldiers of the North and of the 
South. It was enough for her to know that some one 
was suffering. 

Love of Humanity. It was the spirit of mercy that 
moved her. The thought of war and its horrors 
brought distress to her soul. Her own comments ex- 
press her inmost feelings : " The war side of war," 
she said, "could never have called me to the field. 
. . . Only the desire to soften some of Its hard- 
ships and allay some of Its miseries ever induced me 
... to dare Its pestilent and unholy breath." Long 
after the conflict was over she wrote: "If I were to 
speak of war. It would not be to show you the glories 
of conquering armies. . . . While they march on 
with tread of iron and plumes proudly tossing In the 
breeze some one must follow in their steps, crouching 



4o6 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

to the earth, toiHng in the rain and darkness, shelter- 
less like themselves with no thought of pride or glory, 
fame or praise or reward ; hearts breaking with pity, 
faces bathed in tears and hands in blood. This is the 
side which history never shows." It was to the service 
of mercy, not of glory, that this brave American woman 
dedicated her life. 

Clara Barton and the Red Cross. When the Civil 
War was over, Clara Barton was worn out by labor and 
hardships, and she went to Switzerland to recover her 
health. There she became deeply interested in the 
Red Cross Society founded, in 1863, by agreement 
among the nations of Europe. The purpose of the 
Society was to aid the wounded of all countries alike 
without any discrimination against enemies. In a 
word, the idea was to alleviate suffering no matter 
who was suffering or where. This plan appealed to 
the heroic nurse from America, and she agreed to form 
a Red Cross branch in her own country. 

In order to start the Red Cross in America it was 
necessary to get our government to sign a treaty 
with European powers joining in the plans of the 
Society. For several years leaders at Washington had 
worked for such a treaty without success. A man 
engaged in this fruitless task said to Clara Barton : 
" I advise you to give it up as hopeless." She was 
not the kind to give up. She had always acted on 
the theory that where there was a will there was a way. 
She finally won the approval of President Garfield and 



WOMEN AND HUMAN WELFARE 407 

he was about to help her when he was shot by a mad- 
man in 1 88 1. His successor, President Arthur, yielded 
to her arguments, and the next year the treaty was 
signed. 

Clara Barton was made first President of the American 
Red Cross. For twenty-two years she held that office, 
serving in the Spanish War as zealously as in the Civil 
War. She also showed how the Red Cross could 
relieve distress caused by fires, floods, earthquakes, 
epidemics, and other disasters. At her death in 1912, 
her name was a household word throughout the country. 

II. The Struggle Against the Saloon 

The Saloon. As the western frontier advanced, the 
saloon and drunkenness followed. As soon as a town 
with a few houses appeared some one would start a 
" dramshop." Out of the saloon flowed all kinds of 
evils — drunkenness, fights, rowdyism, poverty, and 
crime. Everywhere sober and law-abiding people 
grew to dislike it. Even many who did not object to 
moderate drinking came to view the saloon as a 
troublesome nuisance from which no good thing could 
come. Others, more determined in their views, decided 
that the saloon must be abolished. By the middle of 
the nineteenth century the struggle against it had led 
to total prohibition of liquor-selling in many places. 

After 1865 the war on the saloon was renewed with 
vigor. In 1874 the women of Ohio took the lead, and 
in a fifty-day campaign abolished " dram-shops " in two 



4o8 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

hundred fifty towns. At the same time the movement 
began in Chicago and spread through the Northwest. 

Frances Willard. When the woman's temperance 
movement appeared in lUinois, there was a natural 
leader for the cause at work in Evanston as the dean 
of women in the local college, Frances Willard. She had 
come from a home of sober and industrious people. 
Though born in New York, she was reared on a farm at 
Janesville, Wisconsin. Her parents had both been 
teachers. They were temperate, hard-working, and 
religious. Even in those early days her mother thought 
that women should vote and take part in public affairs. 
Unlike most farmers' daughters, Frances was able to 
get a college education. She was also fortunate enough 
to secure an opportunity to travel abroad, where she 
became even more deeply interested in woman's place 
and work in the world. By her unusual qualifications 
she had won a position in her old college at Evanston. 

In the Cause of Prohibition. With tireless energy 
Frances Willard threw herself into the prohibition 
movement. She wrote books, pamphlets, and articles 
against the saloon. She lectured in all parts of the 
country. She served for years as head of the Woman's 
Christian Temperance Union, formed in the city of 
Chicago, with branches in nearly every hamlet, village, 
town, and city in the land. Other women joined 
in the work of organization, but no one had such 
qualities of leadership. Wherever she went Frances 
Willard aroused the community against the saloon. 



WOMEN AND HUMAN WELFARE 409 

At first Frances Willard thought mainly of persuad- 
ing people not to drink and not to allow licenses to 
be granted to liquor dealers. In the course of her 
work, she became more and more convinced that not 
until women had the vote could they be victorious. 
So she added " woman suffrage " to the reform pro- 
gram of her Temperance Union. By her labors in 
many fields she rallied thousands of women to her 
support. Before her death, in 1898, prohibition had 
made rapid gains. Had she lived twenty-five years 
longer she would have seen the saloon abolished 
throughout the United States by an amendment to 
the federal Constitution which went into eflfect in 
1920. She would also have seen woman suffrage 
practically assured. 

III. Winning a Voice in Government 

Women and the Government. As women came 
to take more and more interest in public affairs, 
the belief spread among them that they should have 
a voice in the government — the right to vote. In 
nearly everything they did, they came into touch with 
the government. Clara Barton was always dealing 
with public officials. Frances Willard, in her struggle 
against the saloon, appealed to the government to 
abolish it. Both of these women became convinced 
that they would have more power in their work if 
they had the vote. The government would pay more 
attention to them if they had a share in elections. 



4IO A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

The First Woman's Rights Convention. The idea of 
votes for women was a very old one both in Europe 
and America, but nobody paid much attention to it 
until about 1848. On that date, the first woman's 
rights convention in the United States was held in the 
state of New York. 

Elizabeth Cady Stanton, One of the leaders in 
calling that conference was Elizabeth Cady Stanton. 
She had been given a good education and, at school, 
had thought long and hard about opportunities for 
girls in the world. Her father was a member of Con- 
gress from a New York district, and she always heard 
people discussing politics at her home. The slavery 
question was then at the front, and she became an 
ardent abolitionist. 

She married an opponent of slavery and took an 
active part in the abolition movement. She went 
with her husband as a delegate to an anti-slavery 
convention in London and was surprised to find the 
members shocked at the idea of allowing women to 
take part in such affairs. She thereupon decided 
to work for " equal rights for women," and began a 
long career in that cause. 

Susan B. Anthony. Among the women converted to 
the new idea was a school-teacher, Susan B. Anthony, 
the daughter of a Quaker schoolmaster. Though born 
in Massachusetts, Susan was reared in New York, 
and after an education at her father's school she herself 
chose teaching for her life work. She was, however, 



WOMEN AND HUMAN WELFARE 



411 



interested in both prohibition and abohtion, and after 
meeting Mrs. Stanton she threw herself into the suffrage 
cause with great zeal. She was a tireless and skillful 
organizer. She could travel day and night, meeting 
people, holding confer- 
ences, and appealing 
to legislatures. Like 
Mrs. Stanton, she was 
a brilliant speaker and 
a clear and forceful 
thinker. The two 
women made a won- 
derful " team," — 
striking figures in a 
group of brilliant 
leaders. 

They did not gain 
much popular support 
until after 1865, be- 
cause the country was 
too badly distracted 
by the slavery ques- 
tion and the armed 
conflict. In 1868 they 
started a newspaper to champion their cause. Mrs. 
Stanton was a writer of marked ability and she acted 
as editor. Miss Anthony, as a capable manager, took 
charge of the business affairs. The next year they 
founded the National Woman's Suffrage Association. 




i£) Underwood and Underwood, New York. 

Susan B. Anthony, One of the Pioneer 
Advocates of Woman Suffrage in the 
United States 



412 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

They had introduced in Congress an amendment to the 
federal Constitution granting votes to women. Year 
after year they appeared before committees of Congress 
to argue their cause. 

At first, they met with scant sympathy. People 
laughed at them for advocating something new and 
curious. Opposition gave way slowly. The territory 
of Wyoming had given the ballot to women in 1867. 
Thirty years later only three western states had followed 
this example. Victory seemed far off when Mrs. Stanton 
died in 1902, and Miss Anthony four years later. 

Anna Howard Shaw. Before the two veterans in 
the cause passed from the scene, other leaders ap- 
peared. One of them Anna Howard Shaw, had come 
to this country at the age of four, in 1 851, a little 
immigrant from Scotland. Her father and mother 
settled far on the frontier of Michigan, where their six 
children were brought up amid the hardships of the 
wilderness. The little girl was able to get the elements 
of an education at a frontier school, and at the age of 
fifteen was teaching. She was the main support of the 
family while her father and brothers were away from 
home fighting for the Union. 

In a short time she turned from teaching to preaching. 
The change aroused intense opposition. The idea of 
women in the pulpit was new and strange. Miss Shaw 
was much discouraged until she met an ardent advocate 
of woman's rights, Mary Livermore. This friend said 
to her : " My dear, if you want to preach, go on and 



WOMEN AND HUMAN WELFARE 



413 



preach. Don't let anybody stop you. No matter 
what people say, don't let them stop you." Thus 
advised, Miss Shaw at the age of twenty-five entered 




© Underwood and Underwood, New York, 



Anna Howard Shaw, One of the Later Champions of Woman Suffrage, 
Speaking at a Street Meeting 



the Methodist College at Albion, Michigan, and pre- 
pared for the ministry. 

Wherever she could get a chance, she preached the 



414 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

gospel, sometimes to Indians, sometimes to lumbermen 
in the forests. She kept on with her education, enter- 
ing Boston University in 1876. For seven years she 
was a pastor at Cape Cod, studying medicine in the 
meantime. 

Woman suffrage was now being agitated in Massa- 
chusetts, and Dr. Shaw warmly joined that movement. 
Until her death, in 1919, she devoted her life and 
strength to the suffrage cause, traveling all over the land, 
lecturing, and organizing. She had the pleasure of 
seeing state after state adopt woman suffrage. 

The Federal Suffrage Amendment. During the year 
in which she died. Congress passed the amendment to 
the federal Constitution granting the vote to women 
throughout the entire Union. The long contest was 
really almost over. In 1920 the amendment was rati- 
fied by enough states to make it the law of the land. 
From small beginnings had grown a great movement. 
Out of discouragement and defeat had come the prom- 
ise of victory. 

Questions and Exercises 

What kinds of work can men do better than women ? What 
kinds of work can women do better than men ? Name a woman 
of Colonial times who shocked the men of her day by holding 
public meetings. 

I. What organization in which Clara Barton was interested 
has become very important in recent years ? Are you a member 
of the Red Cross Society ? Why ought every one to belong to this 
society ? What is meant by an international organization ? 



WOMEN AND HUMAN WELFARE 415 

II. What is the difference between temperance and prohibi- 
tion ? Why has prohibition become necessary ? 

III. What is meant by suffrage ? Why is the right of suffrage 
important in our country ? State three important arguments for 
woman's suffrage. What are the arguments of those who oppose 
woman's suffrage ? 

Suggestions for Reading 

Hart's Source Readers of American History, No. 4, Romance of 
the Civil War, pp. 381-418 (women in the Civil War); Gordy's 
Our Patriots, pp. 150-153 (Frances E. Willard), pp. 154-162 
(Clara Barton) ; Grace Humphrey's Women in American History, 
pp. 189-205 (Clara Barton); Kate Dickinson Sweetser's Ten 
American Girls from History, pp. 143-173 (Clara Barton); Elmer 
C. Adams and Warren Dunham Foster's Heroines of Modern Prog- 
ress, pp. 58-88 (Elizabeth Cady Stanton), pp. 147-177 (Clara 
Barton), pp. 215-244 (Frances E. Willard) ; Mary R. Parkman's 
Heroines of Service, pp. 61-85 (Clara Barton), pp. 89—115 (Frances 
E. Willard), pp. 151-181 (Anna Howard Shaw). 

Problems for Further Study 

Give as complete a list as you can of the women who have 
been prominent in our history. Compare this list in size with 
even a partial list of the important men. Why do you suppose 
that the men are so much more numerous ? Of the three kinds of 
women's service mentioned in this chapter, which can be per- 
formed better by women than by men "^ Which could have been 
performed equally well by men ? Which two are a direct attempt 
to lessen the suffering in the world .^ Which is a rebellion against 
injustice ^ 



CHAPTER XXIV 

PRESIDENT ROOSEVELT AND MODERN QUESTIONS 

The Problem : Should the President Lead the Coun- 
try and Congress? The Constitution of the United 
States gives to Congress the power to make laws. 
It lays upon the President the duty of seeing that they 
are obeyed. It also says that he shall give to Congress 
any information on public affairs which he deems worthy 
of attention. It is thus evident that the makers of 
our Constitution intended the President to be in some 
sense a leader and adviser. From Washington's time 
to our own, Presidents have laid before Congress and 
the country new ideas on public questions. 

To what lengths the President should go as a 
leader in American affairs, however, has always been 
an important problem. Some Presidents have been 
uncertain about it ; but for nearly eight years there 
was one in the White House — Theodore Roosevelt 
— who had no doubts about it. Speaking of the Presi- 
dent's work, he said : "My belief was that it was not 
only his right but his duty to do anything that the needs 
of the nation demanded unless such action was forbid- 
den by the Constitution or by the laws." Such was 
his way of solving an old but ever present problem. 

416 



PRESIDENT ROOSEVELT AND MODERN QUESTIONS 417 



I. Roosevelt's Training for a " Strenuous Life " 

"A Typical American." When Theodore Roosevelt 
became President in 1901, he had already had wide 
experience in public affairs. He had long been in city, 
state, and national service. His entire life had been a 
preparation for leadership in America. 

Ancestry. The history of the Roosevelt family runs 
back to the days of New Amsterdam. On his father's 
side he was of Dutch descent. In his veins there also 
flowed Welsh, English, 
Irish, and German 
blood. His mother, he 
tells us, was " a sweet, 
gracious, beautiful 
Southern woman," a 
daughter of the state 
of Georgia. 

Youth and Educa- 
tion, Theodore Roose- 
velt was born in New 
York City in 1858. He 
was a sickly and deli- 
cate child. Most of 
his early education was 
given to him by tutors. At the age of ten he made his 
first journey to Europe. Four years later he was 
taken on a trip to Egypt, the Holy Land, and Greece, 
and spent some time in Europe at study. His early 




(£) Bro-d.')i Bros., New York. 
Theodore Roosevelt at the Age of Eight 



4l8 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

interests were especially in birds and wild animals. 
In 1876 he entered Harvard College, graduating in 1880. 
He proved to be what he called " a reasonably good 
student." He studied law for a while, but he did not 
practice because he had Inherited a comfortable fortune. 
He did not have to think of earning a living. He 
could devote himself to political life. 

In the State Legislature. Roosevelt became active 
in the Republican party in 1881, and was elected 
to the legislature of New York. He served for three 
terms, winning a wide reputation in the state. He 
found at Albany a very good friend In the governor, 
Grover Cleveland, as we have seen. 

Life in the West. As he was not vigorous enough 
in body for the severe strain of continuous Indoor 
work, Roosevelt went out to the Dakota country to 
build up his strength. There for a time he managed 
two cattle ranches. " It was," he tells us, " a land 
of vast silent spaces, of lonely rivers, and of plains 
where the wild game stared at the passing horseman. 
... In that land we lived a free and hardy life, 
with horse and with rifle." The life was full of excite- 
ment. Bobcats, stampeding cattle, and prairie fires 
broke the monotony of hard work on the ranch. The 
frail young man grew strong and the love of the open 
country and the people of the Western plains remained 
with him through the rest of his life. 

In Public Life Again. In the spring of 1889 Roose- 
velt was appointed by President Harrison as one of the 



PRESIDENT ROOSEVELT AND MODERN QUESTIONS 419 

civil service commissioners of the United States. He 
opposed the gross " spoils system " of the old days and 
was hailed as a " reformer." 

Six years later he was appointed police commissioner 
in New York City. It was his custom to make mid- 
night trips through the city to learn what the police- 
men were doing. While he was in this work he came 
to know, as never before, the life of the people of the 
great city. 

From the police department Roosevelt went to 
Washington in 1897, to serve as Assistant Secretary of 
the Navy. He at once turned his attention to improving 
the navy, especially to training the gunners. He was 
not afraid to " waste powder " teaching the men how 
to shoot straight. Soon the war against Spain began. 
The gunners of the navy did their work with great 
skill. Roosevelt himself laid aside his civil office and 
raised a regiment of " Rough Riders." He and his 
men distinguished themselves in the service and at- 
tracted national attention. On his return to New York, 
Colonel Roosevelt was elected governor of the state. 

n. President of the United States 

From Albany to Washington. In the summer of 
1900, the Republican national convention assembled 
to choose candidates for President and Vice President. 
McKinley was so popular in his party that there was 
no opposition to his renomination. Roosevelt was 
likewise popular and his name was immediately men- 



420 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



tioned for Vice President. He did not wish the 
nomination. He said he " greatly disliked the office 
of Vice President and was very much interested in the 

governorship of New 
York." Some of his 
friends advised against 
accepting it. They told 
him that he would be 
" sidetracked " if he 
did. So much pressure 
was brought to bear, 
however, that finally 
he yielded and was 
nominated. 

Roosevelt had been 
in his new office only 
a few months when 
President McKinley 
was shot by an anar- 
chist and died in Buf- 
falo. In September, 
1901, the Vice Presi- 
dent took the oath of 
office as chief magis- 
trate. He announced 
that he would continue the plans of McKinley and re- 
tain the members of his cabinet. Some of his friends 
objected, saying that he would be " a pale copy of 
McKinley." He answered that he was not concerned 




© Clinedinst, Washington, D. C. 

President Roosevelt, the Advocate of 
"The Strenuous Life," out for a Gal- 
lop Across Country 



PRESIDENT ROOSEVELT AND MODERN QUESTIONS 421 

over that, but rather about " facing the new problems 
that arose." He served out the unexpired term and 
then was reelected in 1904. 

Conservation of Natural Resources. Among the 
first of the new questions which he took up was the 
proper care of the nation's lands, forests, waterfalls, 
and minerals ; that is, to conserve our natural re- 
sources. Early in his term he said : " The forest and 
water problems are perhaps the most vital internal 
problems of the United States." 

Reclamation, All through the Western states there 
were vast areas of fertile soil on which little rain 
fell. In many sections there were mountain streams 
which ran full in the spring but dwindled to rivulets 
in the summer. For a long time Western men had 
dammed up many of the streams and distributed the 
water slowly over the desert land so that it could be 
cultivated. They wished the government to help in 
this work so that larger dams could be built and larger 
tracts of land watered. President Roosevelt approved 
the idea. In 1902 Congress passed the' Reclamation 
Act, which set aside money from the sale of public 
lands to reclaim waste areas by irrigation. Some said 
that the Constitution did not authorize Congress to 
do this, but Roosevelt declared that a broad view of 
the matter must be taken. 

As soon as the act was passed, surveys of the Western 
rivers and arid regions were made. Great dams were 
built to store the winter floods. Canals were dug to 



422 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

convey the water among the fields as needed. One 
project after another was carried out, and by 1920 
more than a mlUion acres of desert land had been re- 
claimed. 

Care of the National Forests. President Roosevelt 
was also deeply interested in the vast forest regions 
owned by the government. He wanted the govern- 
ment to stop selling the forest lands and to secure the 
proper care and use of the timber. He made the 
stock grazers pay for the right to turn cattle into the 
national forests. He reserved great districts for public 
purposes, thus discontinuing their sale. He approved 
plans for preventing fires in forests. Towers were 
built and watchers kept on the lookout day and night 
for fires. Telephone lines were built so that as soon 
as a fire was discovered, word could be sent to the fire 
fighters. He laid down the principle that " public 
property should be paid for and should not be per- 
manently granted away when such permanent grant 
is avoidable." 

The Coal Strike and the Labor Problem. In 1902 
there was a great coal strike. Thousands of miners 
quit work and as winter was approaching many people 
were in danger of freezing. President Roosevelt said 
that the strike concerned everybody, and he brought 
the employers and employees together in a conference 
at the White House. He asked them to lay their dif- 
ferences before a board of men appointed by himself. 
They consented and the board decided the points 



PRESIDENT ROOSEVELT AND MODERN QUESTIONS 423 

in dispute. President Roosevelt thereupon took up 
a serious study of the problem of strikes. 

As he said, the anthracite coal strike showed that 
" the labor problem in this country had entered a 
new phase." He explained in detail why this was 
so : "A few generations ago an American workman 
could have saved money, gone west, and taken up a 
homestead. Now the free lands are gone. In earlier 
days a man who began with pick and shovel might 
have come to own a mine. That outlet too is now 
closed, as regards the immense majority." So it 
happened, he said, that miners who wanted to make 
progress could not do it " by ceasing to be wage 
earners." They had to do it by " improving the 
conditions under which all the wage earners in all 
the industries of the country lived and worked." 

The Reason for Labor Unions. Then, President 
Roosevelt went on to show why the men had formed 
unions in order to improve their conditions. The 
great coal companies, he pointed out, " could easily 
dispense with the services of any particular miner. 
The miner, on the other hand, however expert, could 
not dispense with the companies. He needed a job ; 
his wife and children would starve if he did not get 
one." . . . The miners singly, he said, were helpless. 
" They could make fair terms only by uniting into 
trade unions to bargain collectively." 

Labor leaders who advocated violence he denounced 
in unsparing terms ; but he took the position that a 



424 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

" square deal " must be given to all. He said that " equal 
and exact justice " must be done to all citizens whether 
rich or poor. " No straightforward man can believe, 
no fearless man will assert, that a trade union is always 
right," he once declared. He condemned those who 
sought to array capital and labor against each other. 
He held that it was right for each to consult its own 
interests, but only in lawful ways and with a due regard 
to the common interests of all. He sharply reproved 
labor leaders and rich men for doing things which he 
thought were against public welfare. 

In his messages and speeches President Roosevelt 
kept before the country the question of " fair play " 
and a " square deal " as between capital and labor. 
His sympathies, he said, ''within the range of fair play" 
were "with the men who have nothing but their wages, 
with the men who are struggling for a decent life." 

Such were the views of President Roosevelt on one 
of the great questions of the age. 

The Panama Canal. For many decades before 
President Roosevelt came to office, leaders in different 
nations in the New World and in the Old had talked 
about a canal across the Isthmus of Panama. A French 
company had tried to build one and lost millions of 
dollars and hundreds of lives. The United States was 
also deeply interested in the matter. Our government 
said many times that it could not allow any Old World 
power to build the canal and thus get a foothold on 
the Isthmus. 



PRESIDENT ROOSEVELT AND MODERN QUESTIONS 425 




The Panama Canal Zone 



426 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

Revolution in Panama. With his well-known energy, 
Roosevelt took action in 1903. The Isthmus of 
Panama was a part of the South American state 
of Colombia. Permission had to be obtained to build 
the canal across the territory. Accordingly a treaty 
was drafted, but the Colombian government would not 
approve it. A short time afterward a revolution broke 
out in Panama, and a tiny republic was established. 
Roosevelt at once recognized its independence and made 
a treaty with it, which gave the United States the right 
to occupy a strip of land across the Isthmus, known as 
the "Canal Zone" and to build the canal. This action 
was taken by the President on his own authority. He 
himself said : " I took Panama without consulting the 
cabinet." The Senate of the United States ratified the 
treaty with Panama after a long debate. 

Building the Canal. The big task of building the 
canal was at hand. It was a dangerous piece of work. 
The climate was hot and diseases were rife. An 
American man of science. Dr. Gorgas, studied the 
causes of the diseases and stamped them out. As 
Roosevelt remarked, " Gorgas made the Isthmus as 
safe as a health resort." 

To marshal a great army of workmen and assign 
each to his duties Is a difficult undertaking. For this 
enterprise President Roosevelt selected Colonel G. W. 
Goethals, an engineer and a leader of men. Goethals 
began his work in 1907, and seven years later the canal 
was opened to the world. " A finer body of men have 



PRESIDENT ROOSEVELT AND MODERN QUESTIONS 427 

never been gathered by any nation than the men who 
have done the work of building the Panama Canal," 
wrote President Roosevelt. " They have all felt an 
eager pride in their work ; they have made not only 
America but the whole world their debtors." No 




The First Ship Passing through the Panama Canal 
Roosevelt lived to see the completion of the great work which he had begun. 



It 



wonder that he looked with pride upon the canal 
was one of his greatest achievements. 

The Fleet Goes around the World. Second among 
his achievements, Roosevelt reckoned his sending of 
a fleet of naval vessels around the world. He had 
always advocated a strong navy. He insisted on keep- 



428 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

ing it in good fighting order and constantly at target 
practice. 

As a part of his plan for giving sailors experience, he 
decided that a fleet of sixteen battleships should en- 
circle the globe. He did not consult the cabinet. He 
acted on his own impulse. " A council of war never 
fights ! " he exclaimed. After he announced his plan, 
many experts said it was not practical. Nevertheless 
it was. The fleet steamed through the Straits of 
Magellan on the way to San Francisco. What if 
Magellan and Drake could have beheld the great 
American Armada plowing through the waters of the 
far South! The ships visited San Francisco, the Philip- 
pines, China, Japan, New Zealand, and Australia, and 
sailed home through the Suez Canal. 

Every ship completed the journey without mishap. 
Coal and other supplies were furnished so promptly 
that not an hour's delay occurred anywhere. Scarcely 
a sailor deserted. Indeed, the men had such a good 
time that they were worn out with sightseeing. One of 
them decided to take a nap in a public park in Sydney, 
Australia. Since he did not want his rest disturbed, he 
wrote, in big letters, a sign which he placed above the 
park bench : " I am delighted with the Australian 
people. I think your harbor the finest in the world. 
I am very tired and would like to go to sleep." 

The trip was a successful test of American seaman- 
ship. The wireless was tested in all kinds of weather. 
Only for a few hours were the ships out of communi- 



PRESIDENT ROOSEVELT AND MODERN QUESTIONS 429 

cation with land stations. Every morning certain 
ships were taken out of Hne and moved off as targets 
for range measuring. In the afternoons there were 
maneuvers for battle practice. 

On February 22, 1907, Mr. Roosevelt greeted the 
returning fleet, saying to the officers and men : " We 
are proud of all the ships and all the men in this whole 
fleet and we welcome you home to the country whose 
good repute among nations you have raised by what 
you have done." His main purpose, he afterward 
wrote, " was to impress the American people ; and 
this purpose was fully achieved." 

III. Ten Years as a Private Citizen 

Roosevelt's Friend, William Howard Taft. Among 
his cabinet officers Roosevelt had a very trusted friend, 
William Howard Taft, who had seen long service in 
the government. He had been a federal judge in Ohio 
and governor of the Philippines, and was then Secretary 
of War. Long before the end of his second term, 
Roosevelt let it be known that he favored Taft as his 
successor. Some urged him to run again himself, 
but he refused. He advised his friends to support 
Secretary Taft as the best candidate in the field. 
They took his advice, and Taft in 1909 became Presi- 
dent of the United States. He acknowledged his 
great debt to his friend, saying : " I can never forget 
that the power I now exercise was voluntarily trans- 
ferred from you to me." 



430 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



On March 4, 1909, Theodore Roosevelt left Wash- 
ington a private citizen of the republic. He sought 
recreation after his labors in a long hunting expedition 
in Africa. He visited several European capitals on 
his return home and was received with high honors. 




© Underwood and Underwood, New York. 

President Taft, Bowing to the People, on the Day of His Inauguration, 

March 4, 1909 

When he arrived in America again, he found a great dis- 
pute going on among the Republicans. Many of them 
did not approve of President Taft's policies. They 
disagreed with his views on the tariff, the manage- 
ment of natural resources, and other issues. The 



PRESIDENT ROOSEVELT AND MODERN QUESTIONS 431 

Republicans had been in power for more than ten 
years, and the country was slowly turning toward the 
Democrats again. In fact, in 1910, the Democrats 
carried the elections to the House of Representatives 
by a safe majority. 

For this defeat some Republicans blamed President 
Taft. They overlooked the good features of his adminis- 
tration and openly said that it would not do to re- 
nominate him in 191 2. After a while they turned 
again to Roosevelt for leadership. At first he put 
them aside. He hesitated to break with his old 
friend. Finally he did so, announcing that he would 
seek the Republican nomination himself at the next 
convention. A battle royal between the two Republi- 
can leaders opened. 

The Progressive Party. When the Republican con- 
vention met in Chicago, a dispute arose over the 
admission of delegates. From several states there 
were two sets of delegates, one for Taft and another 
for Roosevelt. In this contest Roosevelt lost. Then 
his friends walked out of the convention. This " bolt " 
left Taft's supporters in control, and he was selected as 
the Republican nominee. 

The Roosevelt delegates declared that the convention 
had been " stolen " from them. They held a meeting 
and agreed to come together again to consider forming 
another party. On August 5 the new convention was 
held and the National Progressive Party was launched. 
Not since i860, when Lincoln was nominated at 



432 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

Chicago, had there been more excitement and enthu- 
siasm at a national party meeting. Ten thousand 
people were crowded into the hall. They sang fer- 
vently the " Battle Hymn of the Republic," and " On- 
ward, Christian Soldiers." 

Roosevelt was present, and when he rose to speak 
the cheering lasted for more than an hour. He spoke 
eloquently of the labor problem, better conditions for 
the workers in industries and mines, shorter hours for 
women and children in factories, pensions for the aged 
and infirm, living wages, and other pressing questions. 

Under his leadership the Progressives entered a 
campaign to make Roosevelt President again. They 
failed. He polled more votes than Taft, but the Demo- 
crats carried the day, electing Woodrow Wilson, of 
New Jersey, This was the first and last presidential 
campaign waged by the Progressives. In 1916 the 
old friends, Roosevelt and Taft, shook hands and 
" buried the hatchet." Taft genially forgave his 
political opponent and retained an important position 
in public affairs. He was particularly interested in 
preventing war by international agreement. 

Later Years. As a private citizen Roosevelt also 
was very busy with voice and pen advocating causes 
which he thought just. Very soon after the World 
War broke out in Europe, he became convinced that 
Germany was wrong and must be defeated. He urged 
upon his countrymen the necessity of preparing the 
army and navy for a crisis. He saw that this country 



PRESIDENT ROOSEVELT AND MODERN QUESTIONS 433 

must enter the struggle against a dangerous military 
power. With all his energy he threw himself into the 
work of rousing the nation to declare war on Ger- 
many. When at length war was declared, he offered 
to raise a force of men and go to the front himself. 
Though this was denied him, his sons "joined the 
colors, and one of them, Quentin, died heroically in 
the service. 

As soon as the victory was won, Roosevelt turned 
with his usual enthusiasm to the problems of the new 
age. His friends looked to him for leadership as of old. 
They could not realize that the man of " iron constitu- 
tion " was near the end of his earthly labors. In the 
midst of busy days in 1919, he died peacefully at his 
home on Long Island. 

Questions and Exercises 

What Presidents do you think have been the greatest leaders 
of their country ? Why ? What is the difference between a 
leader and a ruler ? 

I. Few Presidents have traveled as widely as Roosevelt; in 
what ways do you think that travel, both in America and in other 
countries, would help a President to perform his duties well ? 
Was President Roosevelt better educated than most Presidents ? 

II. What is meant by conservation ? By natural resources ? 
Why is the conservation of our natural resources more important 
to-day than ever before ? Make a list of the valuable things that 
you have seen wasted which could and ought to have been saved. 
What national resources are in greatest danger of being destroyed ? 
Locate the Isthmus of Panama. Locate Colombia. Why did 
the United States prefer to build a canal across the Isthmus itself 

2 F 



434 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

rather than to have this work done by a European country ? 
With what parts of the world is it easier for our country to trade 
because of the Panama Canal ? Make a list of Roosevelt's acts as 
President, in the order of their Importance. Give the reasons 
for your choice. 

III. What was meant by the Progressive Party? State 
another case in American history in which a political party be- 
came divided at election time, and the result. 

Suggestions for Reading 

Ellis's Lives of the Presidents, pp. 220-288 (Roosevelt), pp. 229— 
236 (Taft) ; Hermann Hagedorn's The Boys' Life of Theodore 
Roosevelt; James Morgan's Theodore Roosevelt, the Boy and the 
Man; Theodore Roosevelt's Letters to His Children. 

Problems for Further Study 

Trace the water route, through the Panama Canal, from New 
York to San Francisco. About how great a distance is saved .'' 
What does "typical" mean? Why is Roosevelt often called a 
typical American ? 



CHAPTER XXV 

PRESIDENT WILSON AND THE WORLD WAR 

The Problem : What Should Be America's Part in 
the World War? On August 4, 19 14, the Imperial 
German army, bent on world conquest, plunged 
into Belgium. This was the stroke for which the 
German war party had long been preparing. Its 
aim was to strike a mortal blow at France. The 
terrible war of the nations had begun. England, 
France, Russia, and Serbia were soon in a death grapple 
with Germany and Austria. The awful conflict seemed 
far away to the people of the United States, safely go- 
ing about their affairs in peace. 

It was not long, however, before it was brought directly 
home to all those engaged in business with European 
countries. England established a close blockade on 
goods bound to Germany and to countries that traded 
with Germany. The German government protested. 
Germany declared the English coasts blockaded and 
announced that submarines would be used for patrol. 
These blockades threatened to destroy American foreign 
trade. The government of the United States was again 
confronted by trying problems like those that had 
perplexed Jefferson more than a hundred years before. 

435 



436 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

The Submarine Campaign. To the surprise of the 
whole world, Germany made it known that, on and 
after February i8, 191 5, she would destroy all enemy 
merchant ships found in English waters. This was a 
distinct violation of the clear rules of war. Merchant 
ships are not ships of war but of trade. If they are 
captured, law and humanity decree that the passengers 
and crew must not be killed or injured but protected. 
The Germans proposed to send ship, crew, and pas- 
sengers to the bottom of the sea. They deliberately 
proposed to set aside the law and to outrage humanity. 
As it was difficult for submarines to distinguish be- 
tween enemy vessels and neutral vessels, they also en- 
dangered American lives and ships. Here was a 
problem as critical as the Nation had ever faced. It 
called for patience, wisdom, and firmness. A heavy 
burden fell upon the President, who is our spokesman 
in foreign affairs and conducts relations with foreign 
countries. 

I. WooDROw Wilson, the Man and Leader 

Early Life and Training. Woodrow Wilson was the 
President who had to lead our country in this crisis. 
Like so many eminent Americans, President Wilson's 
ancestors were of Scotch-Irish origin. His grand- 
father and grandmother came from Ireland during the 
presidency of Thomas Jefferson. They stayed a few 
years in Pennsylvania and then were seized by the 
" western fever." They made their next home in 




Europe in 1914 



PRESIDENT WILSON AND THE WORLD WAR 437 

Steubenville, Ohio, where the grandfather opened a 
printing office. 

One of the sons of this Ohio printer, Joseph, after 
mastering the printing trade added learning to it. 
He received a sound college education and entered the 
Presbyterian ministry. While stationed at Staunton, 
Virginia, in 1856, there was born to him a son, to whom 
was given the name of Thomas Woodrow. 

Days at College. The early life of the youth was 
spent in the South. During the Civil War he lived 
at Augusta, Georgia. He prepared for college at an 
academy in Columbia, South Carolina, and entered 
Davidson College in the neighboring state of North 
Carolina. After remaining there for one year, he went 
to Princeton, where he took his degree with honors in 
1879. As a student he read widely and deeply, and 
showed his power as a writer of excellent English. 

The Young Lawyer. On completing college he sought 
a legal education at the University of Virginia. He 
made a special study of public speaking and won a gold 
medal for oratory. He began the practice of law in 
Atlanta, but the clients did not come. 

The College Professor. Wilson thereupon decided to 
become a teacher and went to Johns Hopkins University 
in Baltimore to prepare for that work. In 1885 he 
was called to Bryn Mawr College. His second post 
as professor was at Wesleyan University in Connecticut. 
Meanwhile he was becoming well known as a writer 
and lecturer. His success in the new profession was 



438 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

unusually brilliant. In 1890 his old college at Princeton 
gave him a professorship and twelve years later selected 
him as president. In addition to teaching, he wrote 
and lectured on problems of government, and became 
popular as a man of letters. There were many friends 
who early thought him fitted for political leadership. 

Governor of New Jersey. Indeed, from his youth 
he himself had dreamed of a career in molding na- 
tional opinion. In an address before the Cleveland 
chamber of commerce in 1907, he said : " Public life 
does not consist merely of the transaction of public 
business. It consists of the formation of public 
opinion, of the guidance of public purpose, of the 
promoting of progress, and of the criticizing of reme- 
dies." Members of the Democratic party in New 
Jersey turned more and more to him for guidance. In 
1910 they nominated him for governor and he carried 
the state. 

President of the United States. Woodrow Wilson 
was launched upon his political career. He stood 
out as a leader of undoubted force. He made a tour 
of the country and gained admirers by his public ad- 
dresses. In 191 2, after a hard battle, his supporters 
won for him the Democratic nomination for President. 
For this honor he was deeply Indebted to William 
Jennings Bryan, who worked for him In the conven- 
tion. The Republican party was divided by the fight 
with the Progressives, so Wilson's victory was easily 
secured. 



PRESIDENT WILSON AND THE WORLD WAR 439 

During the first months of his administration he 
laid before Congress a large program of work. He 
adopted the old rule of reading his messages to Con- 
gress instead of sending them. He sought and ob- 
tained the passage of many important laws. One of 
them, revising the tariff, was a direct fulfillment of a 
party pledge. 

n. President Wilson and German " Fright- 
fulness " 

Neutrality at First. When the terrible war opened 
in Europe in 1914, President Wilson urged his coun- 
trymen not to take sides, but to be neutral in thought 
and act. He turned a deaf ear to those who said that 
the United States should take up arms against Ger- 
many. In 1916 he was reelected. In his campaign 
his supporters made much of the fact that he had 
been able to keep the country out of war. 

The Clash with Germany. At no time, however, did 
President Wilson concede the right of Germany to 
sink peaceful merchant ships and endanger the lives 
of crew and passengers. In February, 191 5, he plainly 
told the Kaiser that such acts would violate American 
rights. He added also that he would hold the German 
government accountable for wrongs done. 

The Lusitania. President Wilson's solemn warnings 
were without avail. On May 7, 191 5, the Germans 
startled the world by a terrible deed. On that day one 
of their submarines torpedoed a British steamer, the 



440 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



Lusitania. The ship was struck without warning, 
in a calm sea near the Irish coast. In a few min- 
utes she went down, carrying to death more than fifteen 
hundred persons. Among them were one hundred 

— , fourteen American 
citizens. When the 
news of this terri- 
ble deed reached 
America a thrill of 
horror ran through 
the country. Al- 
most everybody 
said that it was a 
cruel and wicked 
deed. 

The Lusitania 
Notes. President 
Wilson acted 
quickly. He called 
on the German 
government to d\s- 

© Underwood and Underwood, New York. OWn the aCt aUd tO 

President Woodrow Wilson, Who Called upon take StcpS tO pre- 
Our Country to Take up Arms in "a War ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^jg j^^ 
for Democracy 

the future. He 
closed with the warning that the United States would 
not " omit any word or act " necessary to safeguard 
American rights. More notes were exchanged and 
finally an agreement was reached. The Kaiser promised 




PRESIDENT WILSON AND THE WORLD WAR 441 

not to sink any more liners without providing for the 
safety of passengers and crew. 

The promise was soon broken. Early the next year 
the Kaiser sent out to the world another terrible 
warning : his government would adopt a policy of 
unrestrained " frightfulness." It began to sink ships 
everywhere on sight without regard for human life. 
President Wilson again issued a firm protest. Then 
he sent the German ambassador back to his own 
country. Having reached the limit of his endurance, 
he called Congress to consider taking up arms in de- 
fense of American rights. 

III. War against Germany 

Congress Declares War. Congress responded 
quickly. With only a few dissenting voices, it de- 
clared war on Germany on April 6, 1917, and on Austria 
in December of that year. The conflict in Europe had 
been raging for more than two years, Italy having 
joined in the meantime. Germany and Austria, how- 
ever, were still powerful. It was no light task to face 
them on the field of battle. 

Men for the Front. The American people had 
counted the cost. Under the leadership of President 
Wilson, they paid the price. The war in Europe was a 
war of nations, as well as of armies. So the United 
States adopted universal service. At first all men 
between twenty-one and thirty-one were made liable 
to serve. Then the draft was extended to all men 



442 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 



between eighteen and forty-five. From men between 
twenty-one and thirty-one so registered were drawn 
soldiers to serve beside those already in the regular 
army. "The whole nation," said the President, " is a 
team, in which each man must play his part." 

Supplies. Every soldier had to be maintained in the 
field. That meant from three to twenty persons work- 
ing to supply him with food, clothing, and arms. 
So labor had to be enlisted for the war. Labor leaders, 




© Underwood and Underwood, New York 

A Liberty Loan Meeting in 1918, Advertising the Sale of United States 
Bonds to Help Pay for the War against Germany and Austria 



PRESIDENT WILSON AND THE WORLD WAR 443 

like Samuel Gompers of the American Federation of 
Labor, appealed to workmen for loyal service in mine 
and at the flaming forge. Women poured from their 
homes into the stores and factories. Farmers put out 
larger crops than ever before. The whole nation was 
enlisted for war. 

Money. Billions of dollars had to be raised to pay 
the cost of it. Heavy taxes were laid. Liberty bonds 
and war savings stamps were sold. " Drives " were 
made and for the last loan over twenty million sub- 
scribers were secured. The whole nation was buying 
bonds and savings stamps. " The supreme test of the 
nation has come," said President Wilson. "We must 
all speak, act, and serve together." 

President Wilson Defines American War Aims. In 
many speeches, messages, and notes. President Wilson 
explained to the world the purpose of the United States 
in entering the war. 

A War of Self-Defense. He pointed out how Ger- 
many in effect had begun war by acts of violence and 
wrong against American citizens and American ships. 
He revealed how the German government had filled 
our land with spies and planted bombs in our munition 
factories. " Much as we had desired peace, it was 
denied to us and not of our own choice." 

No Selfish Aims. America had no selfish aims in 
the war. " The world must be made safe for democ- 
racy. . . . We have no selfish ends to serve. We 
desire no conquest, no dominion." Such was the 



-444 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

burden of President Wilson's message to Congress 
when he called the nation to arms. 

The ''Fourteen Points.'' On January 8, 1918, he 
laid down in " Fourteen Points " the war aims of our 
country. The chief were as follows : Nations must not 
make secret treaties with one another. Navigation 
on the seas must be free in war and peace. National 
armies must be reduced to the smallest possible numbers. 
Belgium, which had been invaded and overrun by the 
Germans, must be freed from their rule and restored to 
the Belgian people. Russia, likewise invaded by German 
armies, must also be freed from their control. Alsace 
and Lorraine, territories taken from France by Ger- 
many in 1870, must be returned. Poland, once divided 
among Austria, Germany, and Russia, must be united 
and made an independent nation. Italian territory, 
seized long ago by Austria, must be returned to Italy. 

President Wilson also added on another occasion 
this principle : No people must be forced to live under 
a government under which it does not wish to live. 
This was the " right of self-determination," so much 
talked about. Each nation, by this right, would be 
independent and choose its own plan of government. 
Autocratic government must be overthrown and demo- 
cratic governments established. 

Such were the general principles underlying Ameri- 
can war aims. 

The League of Nations. Finally President Wilson 
spoke of seeking some way to prevent wars in the 



PRESIDENT WILSON AND THE WORLD WAR 445 

future. He insisted that there should be formed a 
" League of Nations." This plan was something like 
the league of American states under the Articles of Con- 
federation, but not quite so strong a union. It was 
his thought that a sort of world government should 
be created. It should be composed of a president, a 
council, and an assembly. The council and assembly 
should be made up of delegates from the various nations 
in the league. This idea President Wilson saw partly 
realized, for the treaty of peace that closed the war 
contained a plan for a League of Nations. The treaty 
was, however, rejected by the Senate of the United 
States. 

America's Part in the Great War. The aid rendered 
by the United States in winning the war against 
Germany and Austria cannot be overestimated. Bil- 
lions of dollars were loaned to the Allies. Supplies 
in enormous quantities were furnished to them. The 
American navy joined in the fight against submarines, 
and helped to keep the sea open for the ships which 
carried soldiers and supplies to France. In May, 1917, 
the tramp of American soldiers was heard In France. 
General John J. Pershing arrived with the vanguard 
of a vast army that was to follow. 

In October of that year American soldiers were on 
the firing line. From that time until November 11, 
191 8, when the armistice was signed, American troops 
did their full part. From day to day the number of our 
soldiers increased on the front. When the Germans 




By November, 1918, when the armistice was signed, the German Army had been driven 
many miles from the Une which they reached in 1914. 

446 



PRESIDENT WILSON AND THE WORLD WAR 447 

surrendered, there were 1,338,169 American fighting 
men in France. Some of the fiercest and most per- 
sistent fighting of the war was done by them. Over 
two hundred thousand of our soldiers were killed or 
wounded in the terrible battles which overthrew the 
military" power of the German Empire. 

Of the heroic deeds of the American soldiers, Gen- 
eral Pershing said : " I pay the supreme tribute to 
our officers and soldiers of the line. When I think of 
their heroism, their patience under hardships, their 
unflinching spirit of off"ensive action, I am filled with 
emotion that I am unable to express. Their deeds are 
immortal, and they have earned the eternal gratitude 
of our country." 

The End of the World War. November, 191 8, was 
a famous month in American history. The German 
army was driven back in disorder all along the battle 
line in France and Belgium, and the German govern- 
ment was compelled to sue for peace. The German 
Kaiser, who was chiefly responsible for bringing on the 
terrible war, was forced to give up his crown and flee 
for safety into Holland. A republic was set up in place 
of his empire. The military power of Germany which 
had so long threatened the peace of Europe had been 
broken on the field of battle. 

When the war was over, our victorious army was 
brought safely across the sea to receive the tribute 
of a grateful nation. Officers and men had served 
well and faithfully. There were full honors for the 



448 



A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 




© Brown Bros., New York. 
General John J. Pershing, Speaking at the Tomb of Lafayette in France 

Lafayette helped America in the War for Independence and Pershing aided France in 
repelling the German invaders. 



PRESIDENT WILSON AND THE WORLD WAR 449 

living and for the silent dead. In helping to make the 
terms of peace at Paris in 1919, President Wilson de- 
clared that he had kept faith with them and sought no 
selfish ends, — no pay in money or territory for the 
sacrifices they had made. 

Questions and Exercises 

Describe the events that occurred just before the United 
States declared war against Germany. What countries were the 
allies of Germany in the World War ? What countries were allied 
against them ? What were the most important neutral nations ? 
Look up each on a map in your geography. Most of the world 
was at war at this time ; what effect would you expect this to have 
upon trade between the nations ? 

I. Why was President Wilson's problem an unusually difficult 
one ? 

II. Many people think that we would have been justified in 
entering the war when the Lusitania was sunk. Do you agree ? 
The Kaiser had said that the American citizens of German descent 
would support Germany rather than America in case of war be- 
tween the two nations. Was his belief justified 1 

III. What did the President mean when he said that the 
whole nation was a team and that it was necessary for each man 
to play his part ? What was America fighting for in this war ? 
What is meant by the League of Nations ? 

Suggestions for Reading 

Cora W. Rowell's Leaders of the Great War, pp. 228-255 (Ad- 
miral Sims), pp. 256-297 (General Pershing), pp. 297-332 (Wood- 
row Wilson) ; Charles H. L. Johnston's Famous Generals of the 
Great War, pp. 140-163 (Pershing) ; Ellis's Lives of the Presidents, 
pp. 236-240 (Woodrow Wilson) ; Eva March Tappan's The Little 



450 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

Book of the War ; William H. Allen and Clare Kleiser's Stories of 
Americans in the World War. 

Problems for Further Study 

How are treaties with foreign countries made ? Find on the 
map the battle line in France about the time the American soldiers 
entered the war and then the line at the time of peace. What 
are War Savings Stamps ? Liberty Bonds ? 



PRONOUNCING INDEX OF NAMES 



KEY TO PRONUNCIATION 



(Webster's International Dictionary) 

ale, senate, care, Jim, account, arm, ask, sofa ; eve, ^vent, end, recent, 
maker ; ice, ill ; old, 6bey, orb, odd, connect ; use, unite, urn, up, circMS, 
menii ; food, foot ; out, oil ; chair ; go ; sing, ii]k ; then, thin ; nature, veixlure ; 
zh = z in azure. 

The numbers refer to pages. Where several references are given, the pages 
on which the principal description is to be found are indicated by heavier type. 



Adams, John (Sd'amz), 110, 123, 158- 
160 

Adams, John Quincy, 197 
Adams, Samuel, 105-110, 111 

Africa (af'ri-kd), 3, 4, 20 
Alabama (al'a ba'ma), 197, 306 
Alamo, the (a'la-mo), 240, 241 
Alaska (d-las'kd), 170, 194 
Albany (ol'bd-ni), 67, 68, 71 
Albany, Duke of, 70 
Albemarle (al'be-marl), 56, 57 
Alfred, the (al'fred), 128, 130 
Alien Act (al'yen), 159 
Allegheny Mountains (al'^-ga'ni), 91 
Alliance, the (d-li'dns), 131 
America (d-mer'i-kd), name of, 21 
Anderson, Major (an'der-s6n), 322 
Audr^, Major (an'dra), 126 
Annapolis (d-nap'o-lis), 145, 150, 151 
Anthony, Susan B. (an'tho-ui), 411- 

412 
Antietam (an-te'tdm), 327, 339 
Appomattox (3,p'6-mat'uks), 336 
Arabia (d-ra'bi-d), 26 



Aristotle (ar'is-tot"l), 5, 6, 7 
Arizona (ar'i-zo'nd), added to U.S., 

242 
Arkansas River (ar'kdn-s6), 236 
Armada, Grand (ar-ma'dd), 45, 46, 

51 
Arnold, Benedict(ar'nuld, ben'e-dikt), 

125 
Arthur (ar'thwr). Chaster A., 357 
Articles of Confederation, 141, 149, 

151, 152 
Asia (a'shd), 6, 7, 18, 24, 26, 32, 65, 

66 
Astor, John Jacob (as'ter), 253 
Astoria (as-t5'ri-d), 254 
Atlanta, Ga. (at-lan'td), 360, 361 
Austin, Moses (os'tin), 238 
Austin, Stephen, 239 

Bahamas (bd-ha'mds), 14 
Baltimore (bol'ti-mor), 66, 230 
Baltimore, Lord, 55, 56 
Barry, John (bar'I), 130, 131 
Barton, Clara (bar'tun), 403, 407, 409 



451 



452 



PRONOUNCING INDEX OF NAMES 



Beauregard, General (bo're-gard), 322 
Benton, Thomas H. (ben'tun), 208 
Berkeley (burk'li), 72 
Birmingham, Eng. (bur'ming-am), 

221, 222, 223 
Black Prince, the (blak prins), 130 
Blaine, James G. (blan), 360, 361 
Bonaparte, Napoleon (bo'nd-part, nd- 

p6'le-un), 167, 168 
Bonliomme Richard, the (bo'nom'), 

130 
Boone, Daniel (boon), 173 
Boston (bos'tun), settlement of, 59, 

61 ; center of opposition to British, 

105-109 
Boston Massacre, 108 
Boston Tea Party, 109-110 
Boxers (bok'serz), 381 
Braddock, General (brad'uk), 96, 97 
Bradford, Governor (brad'ferd), 59 
Brandon, Vermont (bran'diin), 351 
Brandy wine Creek (bran'di-win'), 125 
Brazil (bra-zil'), 30, 41 
Breckinridge, John C. (brek'in-rij), 

302 
British Guiana (g^-a'nd), 364 
Brown, John, 274 
Bryan, William Jennings (bri'an), 

371, 376-378 
Buena Vista (bu'nd vis'td), 242 
Bull Run, 324 

Bunker Hill (bunk'er hil), 123 
Burgoyne, General (bur-goin'), 127, 

141 
Burke, Edmund (burk), 116-118, 140 

Cabot, John (kab'iit), 26-29 
Cabot, Sebastian (s$-bas'chdn), 26-28 
Cadiz (ka'diz), 18, 19, 45 
Calhoun, John C. (kal-hoon'), 185, 
267-271 



California (kal'i-for'ni-d), claims to, 
170 ; added to U. S., 243 ; explora- 
tion and settlement, 244-248 ; be- 
comes free state, 249 

Calvert, Cecil (kal'vert), 56 

Calvert, George, 55 

Cambridge, Mass. (kam'brij), 123, 124 

Canada (kan'd-dd), early settlements 
in, 85 ; passes under British flag, 
99 ; in War of 1812, 185 

Canary Islands (kd-na'ri), 10, 12 

Cape Cod, 27, 33, 67 

Cape of Good Hope, 3, 20, 29, 31, 44 

Caribbean Sea (kar'i-be'dn), 17, 40, 
47, 374 

Carolinas, the (ka'i-6-le'nas) , reached 
by Verrazano, 33 ; settlement of, 
56-57 

Caroline Islands (kar'6-hn), 44 

Carteret (kar'teret), 72 

Cartier, Jacques (kar'tya', zhak), 26, 
33, 34 

Caspian Sea (kas'pi-dn), 3 

Central America, 19 

Champlain (sham-plan'), 85 

Charleston (charlz'tiin), colony at, 
56 ; at the opening of the Civil War, 
321-322 

Chattanooga (chat'd-noo'gd), 332. 

Cherokee (cher'6 ke'), 235, 236 

Chile (che'la), 42 

China (chi'nd), trade with, 1, 2 ; rela- 
tions with foreign powers, 380-384 

Cincinnati (sin'si-nat'i) , 213 

Civil War, 320-340, 344 

Clark, George Rogers (klark), 142, 172 

Clark, Willliam, 172. See Lewis and 
Clark Expedition. 

Clay, Henry (kla), 185, 207, 208, 274- 
283, 291 

Clemens, Orion (klem'enz), 390, 393 



PRONOUNCING INDEX OF NAMES 



453 



Clemens, Samuel L. See Mark Twain. 

Clermont, the (kler'mont), 222-223 

Cleveland, Grover(klev'land), 357-366 

Clinton, De Witt (klin'tt'ai), 224-228 

Colorado (kol'o-ra'do), 243 

Colorado River, 173 

Colombia (ko-lom'be-a), 353 

Columbia River (ko-lum'bi-d), 170, 
173, 176, 254 

Columbia University (u'ni-vur'si-ti), 
150 

Columbus, Christopher (ko-liim'bus 
kris'to-fer), 3-21, 24 

Columbus, Diego, 8 

Comanches (ko-man'chez), 238 

Concord (kon'kord), 121 

Confederacy, Southern, 314, 332 

Confederate States of America, 307 

Connecticut (ko-net'i-kut), settlement 
of, 64-65 

Connecticut River, 64 

Constantinople (kon-stan'ti-no'p'l), 1, 
2 

Constitution, the (kon'sti-tu'shiin), 
150-154, 155 

Constitutional Convention (kon-ven' 
shun), 142, 152 

Continental Congress (kon'ti-nen'tal 
kon'gres), formation of, 110 ; as- 
sembly in Philadelphia, 115 ; Dec- 
laration of Independence adopted 
by, 136. 

Continentals (kon'ti-nen'tals), 125 

Cook, Captain (kook), 170 

Cornwallis, General (kOrn-wol'is), 127 

Cortes (kor'tez), 37 

Council Bluffs (koun'sil bliifs), 173 

Cowpens (kou'penz'), 127 

Cuba (kii'bd), exploration of, 17 ; in 
the Spanish-American War, 367- 
369, 372 



Davis, Jefferson (da'vis jef'er-sf<n), 

306-316, 339 
Declaration of Independence, 131, 132, 

134-136, 141, 165 
De Grasse, Admiral (de gras), 127 
Delaware (del'd-war), 76-77, 306 
Delaware River, 72, 74, 76, 77, 124, 125 
Democratic Party (dem'6-krat'ik), 

356, 357, 360, 362, 431, 432 
Denver (den'ver), 246 
Deptford (det'ferd), 45 
Detroit River (de-troif), 87 
Dew, Thomas, 312 
Dewey, Admiral (du'i), 373 
Diaz, Bartholomew (de'jis bar-thol 

6-mu), 20 
Dover, Straits of (do'ver), 46 
Drake, Sir Francis (drak), 38-47 
Drake, the, 129 
Douglas, Stephen A. (dug'lds), 298, 

299, 301, 322 

East Indies (est In'diz) , 14 

Ecuador (ek'wd-dor'), 353 

Edison, Thomas (ed'i-sun), 344-354 

Edward, the (M'werd), 131 

Elizabeth, Queen of England (e-liz'd- 
beth), 38, 48, 52 

Ehzabethtown (e-Iiz'd-beth-toun), 72. 

England (in'gldnd), rivalry with Spain, 
38-48 ; founds settlements in Amer- 
ica, 51-78 ; clashes with France in 
America, 83-101 ; treaty with 
France, 103 ; opposition to rule in 
America, 103-118 ; treaty with, 142 ; 
war with France, 168 ; in the World 
War, 435 

Erie Canal (e'ri ka-nal'), 225-227 

Fairfax, Lord (far'faks), 94 
Faneuil Hall (fun'l), 108 



454 



PRONOUNCING INDEX OF NAMES 



Far East, early trade with, 1, 3, 21, 24, 
37 ; relations with western countries, 
378-385 

Farragut, Admiral (far'a-giit), 332 

Federal Hall (fed'er-al), 157 

Federalists (fed'er-al-ists), 158, 159, 
160, 164, 187, 189, 190 

Ferdinand, of Spain (fur'di-nand), 8 

Fitch, John (fich), 221 

Florence (flor'ens), 7, 32 

Florida (iior'i-dd), purchase from 
Spain, 168, 191 ; seizure by Jackson, 
192, 201; secession of, 306 

Fort Christina (fort kris-ti'nd), 76 

Fort Clatsop (klat'swp), 176 

Fort Donelson (don'el-siin), 332 

Fort Duquesne (doo-kan'), 95 

Fort McHenry (mak-hen'ri), 168 

Fort Necessity (ne-ses'i-ti), 96 

Fort Orange (or'enj), 68, 71 

Fort Sumter (sum'ter), 320, 321, 322 

France, explorers sent out from, 32, 33 ; 
clash with England in America, 83- 
101 ; treaty with England, 103 ; in 
Revolution, 130, 136, 141, 142 ; pur- 
chase of Louisiana from, 167-168; 
in World War, 435 

Franklin, Benjamin (frank'lin, ben'jri- 
min), 117, 136-142 

Fraunces' Tavern (fron-sis tav'ern), 
145 

Fremont, John C. (fre-monf), 244- 
250 

French and Indian War, 92-97 . 

Frobisher, Sir Martin (frob'ish-er), 38 

Fulton, Robert (fool'tiin) , 221-224. 

Gadsden, Christopher (gadz'den, kris' 

to-fer), 131 
Ganges River (gan'jez), 19 
Garfield, James A. (gar'feld), 357, 362 



Garrison, William Lloyd (gSr'i-SMn), 

274 
Genoa (jen'6-d), 1, 4, 26 
George II, 78 
George III, 103, 104, 113, 114, 116, 117, 

125, 128, 136 
Georgia (j6r'ji-d), 77, 78, 306 
Germany (jur'md-ni), settlers from, 

74 ; in war with France, 98 ; in 

World War, 435-442 
Gettysburg (get'iz-burg), 334, 339 
Gist, Christopher (gist, krLs' to-fer), 94 
Golden Hind (hind), 42, 43, 45 
Gompers, Samuel (gom'perz), 444 
Grant, Ulysses S. (grant, u-lis'ez), 

330-335, 357 
Gray, Captain (gra), 170 
Great Britain (brif'n) clash with 

French Empire, 83-101 ; in the 

Revolution, 103-118 ; dispute with, 

about the Oi'egon boundary, 261-262 
Great Lakes, 83, 88, 91, 92, 142 
Greene, General (gren), 127 
Guadalquivir River (gS'ddl-kwiv'er), 

30 
Guilford (gil'ferd), 127 

Haiti (ha'tl), 14, 17, 18, 19 

Half Moon, 66 

Hamilton, Alexander (ham'il-twn, al' 

eg-zan'der), 150-160, 212, 231 
Hancock, John (han'kok), 136 
Hanna, Marcus A. (han'd, mar'kws), 

371 
Harrison, Benjamin (har'i-s?<n), 361 
Harrison, William Henry, 281 
Hartford (hart'ferd), 64 
Hartford Convention, 189-190 
Harvard College (har'vdrd), 133 
Havana (hd-van'd), 131, 367 
Hawaii (hii^wi'e), 363 



PRONOUNCING INDEX OF NAMES 



455 



Hawkins, Sir John (lio'kinz), 38, 40, 46 

Hay, John, 383-385 

Hayes, Rutherford B. (haz, rufh'er- 

ferd), 357 
Hayne, Robert (han), 285, 287 
Henry the Navigator (Henry the niiv' 

i-ga'ter), 4 
Henry VH, 26, 27 
Heniy, Patrick, 105, 111-116, 121 
Hermitage, The (hur'mi-taj), 209 
Hispaniohi (his-pa' no-Id), 17 
Holland (hol'aud), 74 
Hong Kong (hong kong'), 373 
Hooker, Thomas (hook'er), 63 
Hopis (ho'pes), 238, 244 
Hopkins, Captain Esek (hop'kinz), 128 
House of Representatives, formation 

of, 153 
Houston, Sam (hus'titn), 235, 236, 240, 

241, 235-241, 250 
Howard, Admiral (hou'drd), 46 
Howe, Ellas (hou, e-li'Ss), 218-220 
Hudson, Henry (hud'swn), 65-67 
Hudson Bay, 67 

Hudson River, 66, 68, 72, 124, 223 
Huguenot (hu'ge-not) 113 
Hussey, Obed (hiiz'i), 217 
Hutchinson, Anne (huch'in-swn), 63 

Illinois (il'i-noi'), 163, 197 

India (in'di-d), trade with, 1, 2 ; 

reached by Vasco da Gama, 3, 20 
Indiana (in'di-an'd), 163, 197 
Iroquois (ir'6-kwoi), 86 
Isabella, of Spain (iz'd-bel'd), 8, 9, 

17, 19 
Italy (it'd-li), 1 

Jackson, General Andrew (jak'swn), 

186, 192, 199-210, 235, 362 
Jamaica (jd-ma'kd), 17, 19 



James I (jamz) 53, 55 

James II, 72 

Jamestown (jamz'toun), settlement, 
53 ; introduction of slavery, 265 

Java (jii'va), 44 

Jefferson, Thomas (jef'er-s?"in), early 
life, 132-133 ; author of Declaration 
of Independence, 134 ; clashes with 
Hamilton and Adams, 157-160 ; as 
President, 163-169 ; in War of 
1812, 182-184 ; views of, 193, 212 

Johnston, Albert Sydney (jon'stwn), 
309 

Johnston, Joseph E., 309 

Joliet (zho'lya'), 87 

Jones, John Paul (jonz), 128-130 

Kalamazoo (kal'd-md-zoo'), 351 
Kansas (kan'zds), 291 
Kansas-Nebraska Act (ne-bras'kd), 291 
Kansas River, 245 
Kaskaskia (kas-kSs'ki-d), 142 
Kearney, General (kar'ni), 247 
Kentucky (ken-tuk'i), 87, 159, 163, 

197,136 
Keokuk, (ke'6-kuk), 390 
King's College, 72, 150 
Kosciusko (kos'i-usTio), 127 

Labrador (lab'rd-d6r'), 27, 28 
La Charette (lashar-ef), 173 
Ladrone Islands, the (Id-dron'), 31 
Lafayette (la'fa-yef), 127, 449 
Lake Champlain (sham-plan'), 127 
Lake Erie (e'ri), La Salle on, 86-88; 

battle of, 186 
Lake George, 127 
Lake Huron (hu'ron), 87 
Lake Ontario (6n-ta'ri-o), 87 
La Salle (Id sal'), 83-91 
Latin America (lat'in d-m6r'i-kd), 192- 

193 



456 



PRONOUNCING INDEX OF NAMES 



League of Nations (leg 6v na'shunz), 
445-446 

Lee, Henry, 336 

Lee, Rev. Jason (ja'sun), 255 

Lee, Robert E, 311, 327, 334, 335, 
336-341 

Lewis, Meriwether (lu'Is mer'i- 
weth'er), 171 

Lewis and Clark Expedition, 170-179 

Lexington (lek'-sing-trin) , 121, 122 

Lexington, the, 131 

Liberator, the (lib'er-a'ter), 272 

Lincoln, Abraham (liq'kwn, a'bra- 
ham), life until elected President, 
288, 292-303 ; contrast with Davis, 
308; saving of Union, 318-330; 
death of, 340-341. 

Lisbon (liz'b?7n), 29 

Liverpool, the (liv'er-pool), 131 

Livingston, Robert R. (liv'ing-stwn) , 
168, 222 

London (liin'dMn), 38, 44, 53, 117, 140 

Long Island, 68, 124 

Long Island Sound, 67 

Louis XIV (loo'l) 83, 85, 88, 89, 90 

Louisiana (loo-e'ze-an'd), taken pos- 
session of, by La Salle, 89-92 ; trans- 
ferred to Spain, 99 ; purchase of, 
166-169 ; state of, 197, 306 

Louisville (loo'is-vU) , 87 

Lusitania, the (la'si-ta'm-d), 440, 441 

McCormick, Cyrus (md-k6r'mik), 

217-218 
McKinley, William (md-kin'li), 363, 

369-375, 378, 419, 420 
Madison, James (mad'i-sftn), 151, 

152, 154, 165, 184-187 
Magellan, Ferdinand (md-jel'an), 26, 

29-31 
Maine (man), 197, 279 



Maine, the, 367, 368, 372 
Mandan Indians (man'dan), 174 
Manhattan (man-hat'an), 67, 68 
Manila Bay (md-nil'd), 373 
Marquette (mar'kef). Father, 87 
Maryland (mer'i-ldnd) , 55, 56, 306 
Massachusetts (mas'd-choo'sets), set- 
tlement of, 57-62 ; opposition to 
British rule in, 105-110 
Massasoit (mas'd-soit'), 59 
Mayflower (ma-flou'er), 57 
Mayflower Compact, 57, 58 
Mediterranean (med'i-ter-a'ne-dn) , 4, 

53 
Merrimac (mer'i-mak), the, 325, 326 
Mexico (mek'si-ko), 242 ; conquered 

by Cortes, 37 ; war with, 238-244 
Mexico, Gulf of, 87, 89, 91, 167 
Michigan (mish'i-gdn), Lake, 87, 88 
Michigan, state of, 163 
Milan (mi'ldn), Ohio, 346 
Minuit (min'u-it), Peter, 68, 76 
Mississippi River (mis'i-sip'i), explora- 
tion of, by La Salle, 87-91 ; Span- 
ish territory bounded by, 99 ; U. S. 
territory reaches to, 142 ; importance 
of, 163-165, 167 ; steamboats on, 224 ; 
life on, by Mark Twain, 391-393. 
Mississippi, state of, 197, 306 
Missouri Compromise (mi-soo'ri) 277- 

279, 291, 312, 313 
Missouri River, exploration of, by 

Lewis and Clark, 172-176 
Missoiu-i, state of, 197, 306 
Mohawks (mo'hdks), 110 
Moluccas (mo-luk'ds), 44 
Monitor, the (mon'i-ter), 325 
MonongahelaRiver (mo-noq'gd-he'ld), 

95, 96 
Monroe, James (mwn-ro'), 167, 168, 
190-194 



PRONOUNCING INDEX OF NAMES 



457 



Monroe Doctrine, 193, 364 
Montcalm, General (mont-kam') , 98 
Montgomery (mont-gum'er-i), capital 

of the Confederacy, 306, 307 
Monticello (mon'te-sel'o), 166 
Montreal (mont're-ol'), 33, 85, 99 
Morgan (mor'gon). General, 127 
Morris (mor'is), Robert, 131 
Morse (mOrs), Samuel, 228-231 
Mount Clemens (klem'enz), 344, 347 
Mount Vernon (vur'nwn), 92, 93 

Narragansett Bay (nar'a-gan'set), 63 

Natchez Indians (nach'ez) , 89 

Navajo (nav'a-ho), 243 

Navarre (na-var'), 89 

Nebraska (ne-bras'ka), 291 

Netherlands, The (nefh'er-landz), 47, 
53 

Nevada (ne-va'da), 243 

New Amsterdam (am'ster-dam), 68-71 

Nevfark (nu'erk), 72 

New England (iij'gland), settlement 
of, 57-65 ; opposition to British, 
109 ; in the Revolution, 127, 133 

Newfoundland (nu'f find-land'), 33 

New France (frans), 85, 88, 100 

New Hampshire (hamp'shir), 65 

New Jersey (jur'zi), settlement of, 
72 ; in the Revolution, 124 

New Mexico (mek'si-ko) , 242 

New Netherland (neSi'er-lrtnd), 68-72 

New Orleans (or'le-anz), transfer to 
Spain, 99 ; importance of, to U. S., 
164, 167 ; purchased by U. S., 168- 
169 ; battle of, 185-186, .200 ; cap- 
tured by Farragut, 332 

New Sweden (swe'den), 76 

Newport (nu'port), 63 

Newton (nu'tun), 64 

Vew York City (y6rk), named, 71 ; 



in Revolution, 124, 127 ; Washing- 
ton's farewell in, 145 ; Washing- 
ton's inauguration in, 155 ; Erie 
Canal built to, 225. See New Am- 
sterdam 

New York State, becomes royal prov- 
ince, 72 ; Bui-ke agent of, 117 ; in 
Revolution, 124, 127, 142 ; Hamil- 
ton's work in, 153, 154. See New 
Netherland 

Niagara, Falls of (ni-ag^a-ra folz), 87 

Nina, the (nee-nd), 10, 14 

Nombre de Dios (nom'bra da dyos') , 40 

North Carolina (north kar'6-li'nd), 
formation of colony, 57 ; ratification 
of the constitution in, 154, 155; se- 
cession of, 306 

North Dakota (north dd-ko'td), 174 

North River (north riv'er), 68 

Northwest Ordinance (north'wesf or'- 
di-ndns), 163, 301 

Northwest Territory, 142, 163, 167, 301 

Nueces River (nu-a'sas), 243 

Oglethorpe, James (o'g'l-thorp), 77-78 
Ohio River (6-hi'6), exploration of, 

86, 87, 91 ; Washington in country 

of, 94 ; steamboats on, 224 
Ohio, state of, 163, 197 
Oregon Compact, 260-261 
Oregon country (or'e-gon), 252-263 
Oregon Treaty, 261-262 
Orinoco River (o'ri-no'ko), 18 
Otis, Harrison Gray (o'tis har'i-siin 

gra), 187-188 

Pacific, Northwest, 170-179. 

Pacific Ocean (pd-sif'ik o'shdn), 
crossed by Magellan, 31 ; Drake on, 
42, 44 ; reached by Lewis and Clark, 
175 



458 



PRONOUNCING INDEX OF NAMES 



Palo Alto (pa'lo al'to), 242 

Palos (pa'los), 8, 10, 15 

Panama Canal (pan'a-ma'), 225, 424- 

427 
Panama, coast of, 47. 
Panama, Isthmus of, 40, 42, 424 
Paris (par'is), Franklin in, 141, 142 ; 

Monroe sent to, 167 
Passaic (pa-sa'ik), 72 
Paterson (pat'er-siin), 152 
Peking (pe'king'), 380 
Pershing, General John J. (per-shlng) , 

446 
Peru (pe-roo'), 37, 40 
Penn, William, 73-77 
Pennsylvania (pen'sU-va'ni-d), settle- 
ment of, 73-77 ; Washington sent 
to, 95, 96 ; FrankUn agent of, 117 
Perry, Commodore (per'i, kom'o- 

dor'), 185 
Philadelphia (fil'd-delTi-d), 151, 153; 
founded, 74 ; first Continental Con- 
gress at, 110 ; national convention 
at, 151 ; constitution prepared at, 
153 
Philip n, of Spain, 38, 39 
Philippines, The (fil'i-pinz), Magellan 
in, 31 ; Drake in, 44 ; Dev^ey in, 
373; after Spanish- American War, 
378, 379 
Pilgrims (pil'grimz), 57-62 
Pinta, the (pin-td) , 10, 14 
Pitt, William, 97, 98, 116 
Pittsburgh (pits'burg), 96 
Pizarro (pi-zar'ro), 37 
Platte River (plat), 173, 245 
Plymouth, England (plim'uth i?;' 

gldnd), 40, 41, 44 
Plymouth, Mass, 57, 62 
Plymouth Rock, 58 
Pocahontas (po'kd-hon'tds) , 54 



Porto Rico (por'to re'ko), discovery 
of, 17 ; after Spanish- American 
War, 375, 379, 380 

Portugal (por't^-gdl) , 4, 7, 37 ; Co- 
lumbus in, 4, 7 ; Vasco da Gama 
sails around Africa for, 20 

Potomac River (p6-to'mak), 154, 165 

PovFhatan (povf'd-tan'), 54 

Princeton (prins'tfen), 125 

Proclamation of Emancipation (prok' 
Id-ma'shiin tiv e-man'si-pa'sh«n), 
327, 328 

Progressive Party (pro-gi'es'iv par'ti) 
431, 432 

Providence (prov'i-denc), 62, 63 

Pulaski (pu-las'ki), 127 

Puritans (pu'ri-tanz), 59-64, 72 

Quakers (kwak'erz), 62, 72, 73-74 
Quebec (kwe-bek'), 85, 92, 98, 99 

Raleigh, Sir Walter (ro'li), 38, 47-48 

Raleigh, the, 131 

Ranger, the (ran'jer), 129 

Red Sea (red' se), 3 

RepubUcan Party (re-piib'li-kan), 357, 
358, 360, 361, 430, 431 

Resaca de la Palma (ra-sa'ka da la 
pal'ma), 242 

Revere, Paul (re-vex' )» 121-122 

Revolution, the American (d-mer'i- 
kan rev'o-lu'shwn), 121-145 

Rhode Island (rod' i'ldnd), settlement 
of, 63, 65 ; ratification of the Con- 
stitution, 154, 155 

Richmond, Va. (rich'mwnd), conven- 
tion at, 114 ; capital of the confed- 
eracy, 314, 315 ; taken in Civil War, 
334 

Rio Grande River (re'o gran'da) 91, 
242, 243 



PRONOUNCING INDEX OF NAMES 



459 



Roanoke Island (r5'a-nok' i'land), 48 
Rochambeau, Count (ro'sham'bo'), 

127 
Rocky Mountains (rok'i moun'tinz), 

91, 169, 245 • • 

Rolfe, John (rolf), 54 
Roosevelt, Theodore (the'o-dor ro'ze- 

velt), 359, 360, 416-433 
Roosevelt, Quentin (kwin'tin ro'ze- 

velt) , 433 
Rouen (rvran), 85 
Russia (rush'd), 65, 435 

Sabine River (sd-ben'), 238 
Sacramento Valley (sak'rd-men'to 

val'i), 246 
Salem (sa'lem), 59, 62 
Samoset (sam'6-set), 59 
San Antonio (san an-to'ni-o), 237, 240 
San Diego (san de-a'go), 237, 243 
San Francisco (san fran-sis'ko), 44, 

237 
San Jacinto (san jd-sm'to), 241 
San Salvador (san sal'va-dor'), 13 
Santa Ana (san'td an'd), 240 
Santa Fe (san'ta fa) , 243 
Santa Maria (san'td md-re'd), 10, 14 
Santiago (san'te-a'go), 373 
Saratoga (sar'd-to'gd), 127, 141 
Sargasso Sea (sar-gas'sS) , 11 
Savannah (sd-van'd), 213-215 
Savannah River, 78 
Schuyler, General Philip (ski'ler), 131 
Schuylkill River (skool'kil), 74 
Scotland (skot'land), 47 
Scott, Dred (skot), 291, 298 
Scott, General Winfield (skot, win- 

f eld), 242, 318 
Sedition Act (se-disli'?/n akt), 159 
Senate (sen'at), formation of, 153 
Serapis (se-ra'pis), 130 



Serbia (sur'bi-d), 435 
Seville (se-vil'), 15 
Seward, William (su'erd), 281 
Shaw, Anna Howard (sh6), 412-414 
Sherman, Roger (shur'man) 
Sierra Nevada (si-er'd ne-va'dd), 246 
Sloat, Commodore (slot), 147 
Smith, Captain John (smith), 51-56, 65 
Sonoma (s6-no'md) , 248 
South Carolina (kar'D-li'nd), 57, 187, 
205, 206; formation of colony, 57 ; 
nullification in, 187, 205-206 ; with- 
draws from Union, 306 
Spain (span), Columbus in, 8, 18, 19 ; 
Magellan receives help from, 30 ; 
power of, destroyed, 37-48 ; territory 
transferred to, by treaty of 1763, 99, 
167 ; Florida purchased from, 192 ; 
war with, 372-375 
Spanish American War, 372-375 
Spanish Main (span'ish man), 40 
Squanto (skwon'to), 50 
Stamp Act, 106, 107, 110, 112, 113, 

116, 117, 140 
Standish, Miles (stan'dish, mllz), 59, 60 
Stanton, Elizabeth Cady (stan'tTin, 

e-liz'd-beth ka'di), 410^11 
Staten Island (stat'en I'ldnd), 66 
Steuben, Baron (stu'ben), 127 
Stevenson, George (ste'ven-siin), 227 
St. Lawrence River (sant lo'rens) 33, 

34, 85, 88, 98 
St. Louis (santloo'is), 173, 176 
St. Malo (san' ma'lo') , 33 
Stockton, Commodore (stok'twn), 247 
Stowe, Harriet Beecher (sto), 273 
Straits of Magellan (md-jel'dn), 41 
Stuyvesant, Peter (stl've-sdnt) 69-70, 

77 
Supreme Court (su-prem' kort), forma- 
tion of, 153 



460 



PRONOUNCING INDEX OF NAMES 



Sutter, John A (sut'er), 248, 249 
Sweden (swe'den), 76 

Taft, WilUam Howard (taft), 429-432 
Taylor, Zachary (ta'ler, zak'dri'), 242 
Tennessee (ten'6-se'), 163, 197, 199, 

306 
Texas (tek'sds), in the Mexican War, 

238-244, secession of, 306 
Thames River (temz), 73 
Toscanelli (tos-ka-nel'le), 7 
Trenton (tren'tjm), 125 
Trinidad (trin'i-dad'), 18 
Tucson (too-son'), 243 
Twain, Mark (twan'), 387-399 

University of Pennsylvania (u'ni-vur' 
si-ti 6v pen's! l-va'ni-ci), 140 

Utah (ti'tS), territory added to U.S., 
243; in compromise of 1850, 282 

Valiadolid (val'ya-ttio-letii'), 19 
Vallandigliam, Clement L. (vd-lan'di- 

gam), 329 
Valley Forge (val'iforj), 125, 126 
Van Buren, Martin (van bu'ren), 

208-209 
Vancouver (van-koo'ver), 44 
Vancouver, Captain (van-koo'ver), 170 
Vasco da Gama (vas'ko da ga'ma), 3, 

20 
Venango (ven'an'go), 92, 94 
Venezuela (ven'e-zwe'ld), 364 
Venice (ven'is), 26 
Verrazano (ver'rat-sa'no), 26, 32-33 
Vespucci, Amerigo (ves poot'che, 

a'ma-re'go), 21 
Vicksburg (viks'burg) 332 
Vincennes (vin-senz'), 142 
Virginia (ver-jin'i-d), founding of, 51- 

55 ; opposition to England in, 113- 

115 ; withdraws from Union, 306 



Wales (walz), 74 

War of 1812, 185-186, 200-201 

Washington, George (wosh'ing-twn), 

in French and Indian War, 92-97 ; 

in Revolutionary War, 122-128, 143- 

145; first President of the U. S., 

154-158 
AVashington, city of, captm-ed in War 

of 1812, 185 
Washington, state of, formation of, 

263 
Watt, James (wot), 221, 222 
Webster, Daniel (web'ster), 284-288 
West Indies (west in'diz), 38, 40, 65, 

150 
West Point (west point), 126 
Wethersfield (wefh'ers-feld), 64 
Whigs (hwigz), 298 
White Plains (hwit planz), 124 
Whitman, Dr. JIarcus (hwlt-mdn, 

mar'kf(s), 256, 260 
Whitney, Eli (hwit'ni), 213-217 
Willamette (wi-lam'et), 255 
Willard, Frances (wil'ard), 408^09 
AVilham and Mary College, 132, 133 
Williams, Roger (wil'yiimz), 62-63 
Williamsburg, Va. (wil'ydmz-burg), 

95, 132, 133 
Wilmington (vsal'ming-tun), 76 
Wilson, Woodrow (wil'sjin, wood'ro), 

432, 437-460 
Windsor (win'zer), 64 
Winthrop, John (win'thrwp), 59, 61 
Wisconsin, state of (wis-kon'sin), 

163 
Wolfe, General James (woolf ), 98-100 
World War (wurld wor), 435-460 
Wyoming (wl-o'ming), 245 

York, Duke of (york), 70, 71, 72 
Yorktown (york'toun), 127 



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